&ti& 


^SH5^ 


"Japan  is  playing  a 
great  part  in  the  civil- 
ized world;  a  good  un- 
derstanding between  her 
and  the  United  States 
is  essential  to  interna- 
tional progress — and  it 
is  a  grave  offense  against 
the  United  States  for 
any  man  by  word  or 
deed  to  jeopardize  this 
<!  ood  u  n  de  rat  a  n  d  in  g." 

Theodore    Roosevelt 


JAPANESE  IN  AMERICA 


BY 

E.  MANCHESTER  IBODDY 


Formerly  Manager  Pacific  Coast  Branch  Midweek  Pictorial,  Current 

History  Magazine  and  War  Volume  Department 

of  the  New  York  Times 


Copyright  by 
Manchester  Boddy 
I,os  Angeles,  Cal. 
1921 


y 


DEDICATION 


TO  THE 

Preservation  of  Peace  and  the  Presentation  of  Actual  Facts 

Regarding  the  Character  and  Accomplishments 

of  this  Alien  People. 


INTRODUCTION. 

IT  is  inconceivable  that  fewer  than  100,000  Japanese, 
willing  to  work  exceedingly  long  hours  at  the  hardest 
of  tasks  for  economic  success,  could  create  an  interna- 
tional problem.  Yet  at  the  present  time,  such  a  problem 
seems  to  exist. 

It  is  the  belief  of  the  author  that  were  the  average 
American  to  know  the  exact  facts  of  the  Japanese- 
American  situation,  there  would  be  no  problem. 

A  full  understanding  by  the  public  is  not  at  all  difficult 
to  arrive  at,  providing  the  facts  and  not  propaganda 
are  furnished.  A  certain  section  of  the  American 
Press  has  singled  out  the  Japanese  for  vilification, 
abuse  and  slander,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  increasing 
its  circulation  by  sensational  methods. 

We  find  the  people  of  California  constantly  harassed  by 
Anti- Japanese  Propaganda,  while  the  rest  of  the  nation 
looks  on,  expressing  only  a  nominal  interest,  and  that 
more  in  the  skill  with  which  the  propagandists  have  plied 
their  art,  than  in  the  subject  of  their  discussion. 

The  purpose  of  the  author  in  the  present  volume  is  to 
present  as  concisely  as  possible  the  history  of  the  diplo- 
matic, industrial,  and  social  relations  between  Japan  and 
the  United  States,  to  review  the  actual  conditions  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  to  present  as  fully  as  possible  an  account  of 
the  various  forces  and  interests  vitally  concerned  with 
the  campaign  of  propaganda  which  has  been  and  is  now 
being  waged. 

The  author  is  indebted  to  McMasters'  History  of  the 
People  of  the  United  States,  Harper's  Encyclopedia  of 
United  States  History,  A  History  of  the  Japanese  People, 
by  Capt.  F.  Brinkley  (Encyclopedia  Britannica) ;  the 
Japanese  Association  of  America,  and  Mr.  K.  Kanzaki. 

Ill 


464172 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

The  Origin  of  Japanese- American  Relations. 

American  Sentiment  Regarding  Foreign  Relations  in  1854; 
Desire  to  Promote  Oriental  Commerce;  Japan  a  Hermit 
Nation ;  Japanese  Social,  Economic  and  Political  Situation 
at  This  Time ;  Foreign  Pressure  on  Japan ;  President  Fill- 
more's Message  to  Congress ;  Perry's  Letter  of  Credence ; 
The  Commodore;  His  Ships;  The  First  Landing;  Presi- 
dent Fillmore's  Message  to  the  Japanese;  The  Second 
Landing;  The  Establishment  of  Diplomatic  Relations 1-14 


CHAPTER  II. 

Sixty-Six  Years  of  Commerce  and  Diplomatic  Intercourse. 

The  First  Exchange  of  Ambassadors;  The  Establishment  of 
Commercial  Relations;  Early  American  Exports;  Early 
American  Imports ;  The  First  Japanese  Immigration ;  Its 
Character;  Place  of  Settlement;  The  Immigration  to 
California;  The  Occupation  of  the  Immigrants;  Their 
Ultimate  Americanization ;  Diplomatic  Relations  Until  the 
California  School  Episode;  The  Japanese  Position;  Mr. 
Roosevelt's  Position;  Its  Prompt  and  Sympathetic  Settle- 
ment; The  Root-Ishi  Agreement;  Efforts  of  the  Japanese 
Government  to  Keep  this  Agreement  in  Every  Particular ; 
Commercial  Relations  since  1854;  Japan  as  a  First-class 
Commercial  Power;  Japan  as  a  Customer;  Future  Com- 
mercial Relations 15-50 


CHAPTER  III. 

Attitude  of  Representative  Americans  Toward  the  Japanese  in 

America. 

Some  of  our  Presidents ;  The  Views  of  Distinguished  Ameri- 
cans; Mr.  Roosevelt;  Dr.  Elliott,  Mr.  Frank  Vanderlip; 
the  Attitude  of  Representative  Calif  ornians :  Dr.  Wilbur, 
Mr.  Herbert  Hoover,  Dr.  Rinehardt;  The  San  Francisco 
Chamber  of  Commerce;  Propaganda  Against  the  Jap- 
anese Its  Purpose;  Sensational  Journalism;  Recent  Edi- 
torials on  the  Subject;  the  Volume  of  Anti-Japanese 
Propaganda;  Political  Propaganda;  The  Unthinking 
Propaganda;  Its  Cause;  Present  Diplomatic  Questions; 
The  Oriental  Viewpoint;  The  American  Viewpoint;  The 
Japanese  Aim  ;  The  Solution 51-69 

CHAPTER  IV. 

The  Japanese  Association  of  America. 

Its    Organization;    Its    Purpose;    Its   Accomplishments;    Its 

Freedom  from  Governmental  Influence 70-77 

CHAPTER  V. 

Japanese  Population  in  California. 

Class  of  Immigrants;  Actual  Japanese  Population;  Citizens 
by  Birth;  The  Occupations  of  the  Various  Japanese; 
The  Character  of  the  Work  Performed;  The  Ratio  of 
Japanese  Crimes  to  that  of  Other  Nationals 78-93 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Standards  of  Wage  and  Working  Hours. 

Average  Wage  Received ;  Their  Earnings  in  Business ;  Hours 
of  Work ;  The  Average  Intelligence ;  The  Intense  Applica- 
tion of  the  Average  Japanese;  Individual  Achievements. .  .94-102 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Standard  of  Living. 

Japanese  Home  Life ;  Their  Desire  to  do  Agricultural  Work ; 

A  Typical  Japanese  Home ;  The  Japanese  Diet 103-108 

VI 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Japanese  Language  Schools. 

Their  Reason  for  Existence ;  The  Educational  Aim ;  Influence 

of  the  Japanese  School 109-113 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Religious  and  Social  Education. 

Japanese  Philosophy;  Social  Education  also  a  Matter  of 
Religion;  Standard  of  Conduct;  Their  Rapid  Assimila- 
tion of  the  Principles  of  American  Conduct 114-120 

CHAPTER  X. 

Assimilation. 

The  Japanese  as  a  Citizen ;  Conditions  in  Hawaii ;  His  Grasp 
of  American  Commercial  Tactics;  The  Desire  to  Learn 
English ;  Restrictions  on  Japanese  Operate  Against  Assim- 
ilation; Assimilation  Rather  than  Amalgamation 121-131 

CHAPTER  XI. 

Intermarriage. 

As  a  Biological  Matter;  Some  Successful  Intermarriages; 
Not  Advocated  by  the  Japanese;  The  Difference  in 
Social   Customs 132-136 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Americanization  of  the  Japanese. 

His  Understanding  of  American  Institutions;  Americaniza- 
tion Impossible  Under  Constant  Harassment;  Lack  of  In- 
fluence of  the  Imperial  Government;  The  Individual  Jap- 
anese Desire  for  Harmony  Between  the  Two  Countries; 
The  Desire  for  Economic  Independence 137-143 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Japanese  Citizenship. 

Dual    Citizenship;    Dual    Citizenship    of    Other    Nationals; 

Dual  Citizenship  in  Practice 144-149 

VII 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
Conclusions. 

California  Legislation;  The  Japanese  Entitled  to  Considera- 
tion; Their  Property  Rights;  The  Japanese  Question 
Largely  a  Made  One;  Comparative  Value  of  Restricted 
Japanese  Immigration  with  That  of  Unrestricted  Immi- 
gration; Our  Waste  Land;  The  Land  Improvement  Ef- 
fected by  Japanese;  The  Economic  Need  of  this  Class 
of  Immigration 150-161 

CHAPTER  XV 
The  Solution  of  the  Japanese  Problem. 

Our  Lack  of  Understanding  of  the  Individual  Japanese; 
His  Wish  to  Succeed  Materially;  Difference  in  Expres- 
sion; The  Need  for  a  Sympathetic  Understanding  be- 
tween the  Two  Nations;  Ease  of  Solution  of  This 
Problem 162-171 

Appendices 
Biographies,  Illustrations,  etc 172 


VIII 


CHAPTER  I. 
Origin  of  Japanese- American  Relations. 

JAPAN'S  rise  from  an  isolated  hermit  nation  to  that  of 
a  first-class  power  in  less  than  70  years,  has  been  with- 
out a  parallel  in  world  history. 

A  nation  exceedingly  restricted  in  territory,  with  an 
ever  strong  economic  pressure  because  of  this  restriction, 
Japan  has  nevertheless  overcome  seemingly  insurmount- 
able obstacles  in  her  remarkable  rise. 

It  is  axiomatic  that  neither  an  individual  nor  a  nation 
can  accomplish  remarkable  things  without  incurring  the 
enmity  of  a  certain  ever-present  element.  Japan  has  been 
particularly  unfortunate  in  this  respect,  due  perhaps  to 
two  things, — first,  her  actual  achievements  have  been 
splendid  and  have  aroused  enmity  because  of  their 
splendidness,  and  second,  the  failure  of  most  Americans 
to  appreciate  the  viewpoint  of  the  Orientals. 

The  Japanese,  like  all  other  Orientals,  do  act,  think  and 
express  themselves  in  a  manner  different  from  the  Occi- 
dent, but  their  aims,  purposes  and  desires  are  absolutely 
identical.  It  is  this  difference  in  expression  which  has 
permitted  a  sensational  press  to  vilify,  misrepresent 
and  insult  them  without  fear  of  contradiction.  The 
Japanese  simply  are  handicapped  by  their  inability  to 
think  and  express  themselves  in  our  terms.  Most  Ameri- 
cans, on  the  contrary,  have  not  taken  the  trouble  or  the 
time  to  understand  them,  with  the  result  that  despite  the 
fact  there  is  every  reason  for  a  wholesome  friendship 
to  exist  between  the  two  countries,  and  the  further  fact 
that  ninety-nine  per  cent  of  both  nations  desire  a  perma- 
nent friendship,  a  Japanese  problem  has  been  created. 

rn 


2  Japanese  in  America 

The  Japanese  have  patiently  borne  these  misrepresenta- 
tions and  false  accusations,  but  the  time  has  come  when 
the  American  people  as  individuals  should  attempt  to  un- 
derstand the  Japanese  as  individuals.  When  this  mutual 
understanding  shall  have  been  arrived  at,  there  will  be  no 
Japanese  problem. 

Japan  has  many  reasons  to  be  grateful  to  this  country, 
chief  of  them  being  that  it  was  an  American  (Commodore 
Perry)  who  successfully  led  her  out  of  her  hermit  ex- 
istence and  started  her  on  the  road  to  her  present  emi- 
nence. 

Her  success  is  so  interwoven  with  the  visit  of  Commo- 
dore Perry,  that  to  form  a  proper  perspective  it  is  neces- 
sary to  consider  the  sentiment  in  America  with  reference 
to  foreign  affairs  at  this  time,  and  the  reason  for  dispatch- 
ing Perry  upon  his  now  historical  expedition. 


American  Sentiment  Regarding  Foreign  Relations  in  1854. 

Immediately  prior  to  Commodore  Perry's  Expedi- 
tion the  American  Government  had  several  pressing  prob- 
lems to  solve.  The  Cuban  authorities  were  interfering 
with  her  foreign  trade ;  she  was  involved  in  a  very  serious 
dispute  with  Great  Britain  over  fishing  rights;  she  had 
just  come  through  the  Walker  filibustering  fiasco  and 
the  people  generally  were  tired  of  the  feeble,  amicable 
neutrality  of  former  administrations,  and  called  for  some- 
thing positive,  something  which  would  uphold  and  ad- 
vance the  honor,  dignity  and  power  of  this  great  country 
and  also  expand  its  commerce.  There  was  a  strong  tend- 
ency to  demand  that  the  rights  of  citizens  abroad  should 
be  sacredly  upheld. 


Origin  of  Japanese-American  Relations.         3 

Desire  to  Promote  Oriental  Commerce, 

American  interests  in  the  Pacific  had  increased  to  such 
an  extent  that  it  seemed  imperative  that  in  some  manner 
the  isolation  of  Japan  should  be  broken.  California  had 
been  acquired  and  admitted  as  a  state,  gold  had  been  dis- 
covered in  1849,  and  people  from  all  parts  of  the  world 
were  hurrying  to  this  new  Eldorado;  transportation 
routes  had  been  opened  across  Nicaragua  and  Panama, 
and  the  Far  East  brought  in  much  closer  contact  with 
the  Atlantic  Coast. 

The  steamships  now  brought  the  markets  of  Japan 
within  eighteen  days  of  the  new  State  of  California,  and 
there  was  a  feeling  that  commercial  intercourse  with 
Japan  was  an  economic  necessity.  California  gave  great 
promise  not  only  because  of  her  known  mineral  wealth, 
but  the  migration  of  people  was  rapidly  accomplishing  her 
settlement  and  trade  was  bound  to  follow. 

In  San  Francisco  Bay,  the  State  had  one  of  the  best 
natural  harbors  in  existence,  and  splendid  results  were  ex- 
pected if  trade  with  the  markets  of  Japan  could  be  se- 
cured. 

At  the  same  time  Great  Britain  and  the  Netherlands 
were  also  aggressively  seeking  to  break  this  isolation. 
The  Netherlands  enjoyed  to  a  limited  extent  trade  facili- 
ties in  Japan.  Great  Britain  was  seeking  like  privileges 
and  it  was  only  natural  that  America  should  enter  into  the 
competitive  struggle. 

Ja£an  a  Hermit  Nation, 

For  approximately  200  years,  prior  to  this  time,  the 
Japanese  had  maintained  a  rigid  policy  of  foreign  exclu- 
sion. Not  only  were  foreigners  prohibited  from  residing 
in  or  even  visiting  Japan,  but  it  was  a  crime  for  Japanese 


4  Japanese  in  America 

to  leave  their  country,  and  was  punishable  by  death  upon 
the  luckless  individual's  return. 

Prior  to  1641,  Japan  had  permitted  the  free,  unre- 
stricted residence  of  all  other  nationalities,  and  as  a  re- 
sult almost  her  entire  social  and  economic  structure  was 
permeated  with  Chinese  customs  and  philosophy.  It  was 
reaction  against  this  Chinese  influence  which  led  to  the 
adoption  of  the  total  exclusion  laws.  It  is  a  remarkable 
tribute  to  the  Japanese  character  that  they  were  able  to 
withstand  two  centuries  of  isolation. 

Japanese  Social,  Economic  and  Political  Situation  at  This 
Time, 

Although  surviving  this  self-imposed  economic  ostra- 
cism, the  Japanese  did  not  come  through  wholly  un- 
scathed. There  had  been  a  very  decided  economic  de- 
pression just  prior  to  Commodore  Perry's  visit  and  the 
entire  financial  situation  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century  has  been  described  as  one  of  expenditure  con- 
stantly exceeding  income,  and  of  the  repeated  recourse  by 
the  *Bakufu  to  the  fatal  expedient  of  debasing  the  cur- 
rency. Depreciation  of  commodities  rendered  the  burden 
of  living  constantly  more  severe.  From  1836  through 
successive  years  one  bad  harvest  had  followed  another 
until  the  price  of  staples,  particularly  rice,  had  become 
prohibitive  and  famines  were  frequent. 

The  Emperor  had  become  more  or  less  of  a  figurehead 
and  the  country  consisted  of  various  feudatories  governed 
by  the  Bakufu,  who,  although  greatly  feared  and  very 
powerful,  were  gradually  becoming  undermined  by  the 
lack  of  public  respect  at  this  time.  The  Bakufu  had  in 
fact  done  everything  possible  to  remedy  conditions,  re- 


♦"Bakufu" — The   dominant  political   element  in  power. 


W»*>jr        m||H 

h 

HyKS^B    m^  '  '*% 

i   : 

ii  *  ^si 

• 

Origin  of  Japanese-American  Relations.        5 

sorting  to  various  schedules  of  reform,  particularly  in  an 
effort  to  restore  economy  and  to  abolish  luxury.  As  for 
example — theatres  were  relegated  to  a  remote  suburb  of 
the  city,  and  actors  were  ostracized.  Despite  these 
good  intentions,  the  Bakufu  were  without  power  to  en- 
force their  efforts,  and  the  country  was  rapidly  going 
from  bad  to  worse. 

Opposition  of  the  Court  Nobles  to  the  Bakufu  was  so 
strong  that  a  special  college  for  their  education  was  es- 
tablished. This  college  was  largely  attended  and  the  capi- 
tal at  last  began  to  awaken.  Public  interest  was  mani- 
fested in  foreign  relations  and  the  Emperor  evinced  his 
solicitude  for  foreign  commerce  by  fasting  and  prayer. 
Therefore,  the  Japanese  had  come  to  realize  that  foreign 
relations  were  as  essential  to  themselves  as  they  could 
possibly  be  to  the  foreign  intruders. 

Foreign  Pressure  on  Jajtan. 

The  interest  in  foreign  relations  that  the  Japanese  them- 
selves were  experiencing  was  partly  the  result  of  their 
economic  situation,  and  in  a  measure  due  to  the  pressure 
that  was  being  brought  to  bear  on  them  by  Great  Britain, 
the  Netherlands,  and  Russia.    Russia  had  made  attempts 
to  colonize  some  of  the  various  Japanese  islands,  and  this 
had  aroused  public  interest  in  foreigners  and  foreign  pol- 
icies.    It  had  also  promoted  the  study  of  foreign  litera- 
ture to  the  extent  that  the  Emperor  by  Royal  decree  had 
permitted  the  following  foreign  books  to  be  translated  in- 
to Japanese,  and  the  translations  read  by  his  subjects: 
The  History  of  Russia,  Notes  on  the  Northern  Islands 
Universal  Geography,  A  Compendium  of  Dutch  Litera 
ture,  Treatises  on  the  Art  of  Translation,  and  a  Dutch 
Japanese  Dictionary. 


6  Japanese  in  America 

This  limited  study  of  foreign  literature  caused  a  nas- 
cent public  conviction  for  the  necessity  of  opening  the 
country,  a  conviction  which,  though  not  widely  held,  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  downfall  of  the  Bakufu.  The 
pressure  from  Great  Britain  was  particularly  insistent, 
and  the  Netherlands,  which  with  China,  held  the  only 
commercial  privileges  in  Japan,  foresaw  that  it  was  only 
a  question  of  time  before  the  Japanese  would  be  forced  to 
re-establish  general  foreign  relations. 

The  King  of  the  Netherlands  at  this  time  is  also  sup- 
posed to  have  communicated  with  the  Emperor  of  Japan 
to  the  effect  that  he  had  been  told  that  Commodore  Perry 
would  land  with  his  consent,  or  force  his  way  through. 

President  Fillmore's  Message  to  Congress, 

With  foreign  sentiment  strongly  in  harmony  as  to  the 
necessity  for  the  reopening  of  Japan,  and  the  Japanese 
themselves  somewhat  prepared  for  it,  President  Fillmore 
crystallized  American  sentiment  in  his  Third  Annual 
Message  to  Congress,  in  which  he  emphasized  the  neces- 
sity for  the  establishment  of  economic  relations  between 
the  two  countries : 

"Our  settlements  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  have  already  given 
a  great  extension  and  in  some  respects  a  new  direction  to  our  com- 
merce in  that  ocean.  A  direct  and  rapidly  increasing  intercourse 
has  sprung  up  with  Eastern  Asia.  The  waters  of  the  Northern 
Pacific,  even  into  the  Arctic  Sea,  have  of  late  years,  been  frequented 
by  our  whalemen.  The  application  of  steam  to  the  general  purposes 
of  navigation  is  becoming  daily  more  common,  and  makes  it  desir- 
able to  obtain  fuel  and  other  necessary  supplies  at  convenient  ports 
on  the  route  between  Asia  and  our  Pacific  shores.  Our  unfortunate 
countrymen  who  from  time  to  time  suffer  shipwreck  on  the  coasts 
of  the  Eastern  seas,  are  entitled  to  protection. 

"Besides  these  specific  points,  the  general  prosperity  of  our  States 
on  the  Pacific  requires  that  an  attempt  should  be  made  to  open  the 
opposite  regions  of  Asia  to  a  mutually  beneficial  intercourse. 


Origin  of  Japanese-American  Relations.         7 

"It  is  obvious  that  this  attempt  could  be  made  by  no  power  to 
so  great  advantage  as  by  the  United  States,  whose  constitutional 
system  excludes  every  idea  of  distant  colonial  dependencies. 

"I  have  accordingly  been  led  to  order  an  appropriate  naval  force 
to  Japan,  under  the  command  of  a  discreet  and  intelligent  officer  of 
the  highest  rank  known  in  our  service.  He  is  instructed  to  obtain 
from  the  Government  of  that  country  some  relaxation  of  the  in- 
hospitable and  antisocial  system  which  it  has  pursued  for  about 
two  centuries.  He  has  been  directed  particularly  to  remonstrate  in 
the  strongest  language  against  the  cruel  treatment  to  which  our 
shipwrecked  mariners  have  often  been  subjected,  and  to  instruct 
that  they  shall  be  treated  with  humanity.  He  is  instructed,  however, 
at  the  same  time,  to  give  the  Government  the  amplest  assurances 
that  the  objects  of  the  United  States  are  such,  and  such  only,  as  I 
have  indicated,  and  that  the  expedition  is  friendly  and  peaceful. 
Notwithstanding  the  jealousy  with  which  the  Governments  of  East- 
ern Asia  regard  all  overtures  from  foreigners,  I  am  not  without 
hopes  of  a  beneficial  result  of  the  expedition.  Should  it  be  crowned 
with  success,  the  advantages  will  not  be  confined  to  the  United 
States,  but,  as  in  the  case  of  China,  will  be  equally  enjoyed  by  all 
the  other  maritime  powers. 

"I  have  much  satisfaction  in  stating  that  in  all  the  steps  prepara- 
tory to  this  expedition,  the  Government  of  the  United  States  has 
been  materially  aided  by  the  good  offices  of  the  King  of  the  Nether- 
lands, the  only  European  power  having  any  commercial  relations 
with  Japan." 

Perry's  Letter  of  Credence, 

The  selection  of  Commodore  Perry  to  command  the 
proposed  expedition  met  with  unanimous  Congressional 
approval,  and  his  letter  of  credence  expressed  the  strong 
desire  of  this  country  to  establish  relations  in  a  friendly 
and  peaceful  manner,  and  also  authorized  him  to  sign 
such  a  treaty  as  should  be  agreed  upon.  The  letter  of 
credence  follows: 

"Millard  Fillmore,  President  of  the   United  States  of  America  to 

His  Imperial  Majesty,  The  Emperor  of  Japan. 

"Reposing  special  trust  and  confidence  in  the  integrity,  prudence 
and  ability  of  Matthew  Calbraith  Perry,  a  Captain  in  the  Navy  of 


8  Japanese  in  America 

the  United  States,  I  have  invested  him  with  full  power,  for  and  in 
the  name  of  the  said  United  States,  to  meet  and  confer  with  any  per- 
son or  persons  furnished  with  like  powers  on  the  part  of  your  Im- 
perial Majesty,  and  for  him  or  them  to  negotiate,  conclude  and  sign 
a  convention  or  conventions,  treaty  or  treaties,  of  and  concerning 
the  friendship,  commerce,  and  navigation  of  the  two  countries ;  and 
of  matters  and  subjects  connected  therewith,  which  may  be  interest- 
ing to  the  two  Nations,  submitting  the  same  to  the  President  of  the 
United  States  for  his  final  ratification,  by  and  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  Senate  of  the  United  States. 

"In  testament  whereof,  I  have  caused  the  seal  of  the  United 
States  to  be  hereunto  affixed,  given  under  my  hand  at  the  City  of 
Washington,  the  Thirteenth  Day  of  November,  in  the  year  Eighteen 
Hundred  Fifty-two,  and  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  the  77th. 

By  President:       (Signed)  Millard  Fillmore. 

Edward  Everett,  Secretary  of  State. 

(Seal  above)" 


The  Commodore. 

Commodore  Matthew  Calbraith  Perry  was  born  in 
Newport,  R.  I.,  in  April,  1794.  He  was  the  brother  of 
Commodore  Oliver  Hazard  Perry,  and  the  two  brothers 
had  made  an  enviable  record  in  the  American  Navy.  In 
1818,  in  command  of  the  "Cyane,"  Commodore  Perry 
fixed  the  locality  of  the  settlement  of  Liberia.  From  1821 
to  1824,  he  captured  several  pirate  vessels  in  the  West 
Indies,  but  from  1833  to  1841,  he  was  employed  on  shore 
duty.  In  1 84 1  he  was  given  command  of  a  squadron 
and  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz  in  1847. 

The  Commodore  represented  the  best  type  of  Ameri- 
can naval  officer.  He  was  the  "Down-East  Yankee" 
type,  which  brooked  no  obstacles  and,  while  a  natural 
fighting  man,  Perry  was  gifted  with  much  more  than  the 
ordinary  amount  of  natural  diplomacy. 


Origin  of  Japanese-American  Relations.        9 

His  Shifis. 

In  command  of  the  "Mississippi,"  "Saratoga," 
"Plymouth,"  and  the  "Susquehanna,"  Perry  sailed  in 
October,  1852,  on  his  flag-ship,  the  "Mississippi."  There 
was  so  much  delay  in  getting  his  convoy  ships  ready  that 
he  was  forced  to  sail  alone.  However,  he  was  later 
joined  by  his  full  squadron. 

After  leaving  America  in  October,  1852,  Perry  reached 
Hongkong  the  following  April,  and  after  a  long  stay 
at  Shanghai  and  Napa,  arrived  with  his  boats  off  Uraga, 
a  town  27  miles  from  Yedo. 

The  First  Landing, 

Boats  full  of  Japanese  immediately  surrounded  the 
ships,  but  no  one  was  allowed  to  come  aboard.  The  Vice- 
Governor  of  Uraga  was  finally  received  and  told  by  Lieu- 
tenant Contee,  that  the  Americans  had  come  as  friends 
and  that  Commodore  Perry  bore  a  letter  from  the  Presi- 
dent to  the  Emperor  and  desired  an  interview  with  an 
official  of  the  highest  rank  in  order  that  this  letter  might 
be  delivered.  The  Vice-Governor  replied  that  Nagasaki 
was  the  only  place  where  foreign  business  could  be  trans- 
acted. Commodore  Perry,  however,  insisted  that  the  let- 
ter be  received  in  Yedo,  and  finally  declared  that  if  a 
proper  official  were  not  appointed  to  receive  the  letter, 
he  would  land  in  force  and  deliver  it. 

This  threat  secured  results  and  after  a  delay,  due  to  the 
erection  of  a  reception  building,  the  landing  was  made, 
and  the  letter  officially  delivered  with  great  ceremony 
to  two  princes,  through  interpreters. 

A  description  of  the  landing  was  later  written  by  an 
eye-witness,  and  is  as  follows: 

"The  marines  led  the  way,  and  the  sailors  following,  the  Com- 
modore was  duly  escorted  up  the  beach.     The  United  States  flag 


10  Japanese  in  America 

and  the  broad  pennant  were  borne  by  two  athletic  seamen,  who 
had  been  selected  from  the  crews  of  the  squadron  on  account  of 
their  stalwart  proportions.  Two  boys,  dressed  for  the  ceremony, 
preceded  the  Commodore,  bearing  in  an  envelope  of  scarlet  cloth 
the  boxes  which  contained  his  credentials  and  the  President's  letter. 
These  documents,  of  folio  size,  were  beautifully  written  on  vellum, 
and  not  folded  but  bound  in  blue  silk  velvet.  Each  seal,  attached 
by  cords  of  interwoven  gold  and  silk  with  pendant  gold  tassels, 
was  incased  in  a  circular  box  six  inches  in  diameter  and  three  in 
depth,  wrought  of  pure  gold.  Each  of  the  documents,  together  with 
its  seal,  was  placed  in  a  box  of  rosewood,  about  a  foot  long,  with 
lock,  hinges,  and  mountings  all  of  gold.  On  either  side  of  the  Commo- 
dore marched  a  tall,  well-formed  negro  who,  armed  to  the  teeth, 
acted  as  his  personal  guard.  These  blacks,  selected  for  the  occasion, 
were  two  of  the  best-looking  fellows  of  their  color  that  the  squad- 
ron could  furnish.    All  this,  of  course,  was  but  for  effect." 

Gifts  were  also  exchanged  and  after  reaching  his  ships 
Perry  was  politely  told  that  now  he  had  delivered  the 
letter  he  might  leave.  This  he  did  not  do,  but  steamed 
farther  up  the  river  some  ten  miles  to  carry  the  impres- 
sion to  the  Japanese  that  he  was  spying  out  the  country 
preparatory  to  landing  in  force,  and  thus  obtaining  the 
required  treaty  signature.  He  finally  withdrew,  however, 
and  returned  to  China  to  give  the  Emperor  the  requisite 
time  to  read  President  Fillmore's  letter  and  decide  upon 
his  course. 

President  Fillmore's  "Message  to  the  Japanese. 

President  Fillmore  was  particularly  desirous  of  as- 
suring the  Japanese  that  his  Government  had  no  wish 
or  interest  in  further  colonial  extension,  that  its  only  ob- 
ject was  to  secure :  Coaling  stations  for  such  American 
vessels  as  might  find  it  necessary  to  coal  in  the  vicinity 
of  Japanese  ports,  the  exchange  of  commodities,  and  the 
protection  of  shipwrecked  Americans  who  were  unfor- 
tunate enough  to  land  on  the  Japanese  Coast.  His  mes- 
sage to  the  Emperor  is  given  in  full : 


Origin  of  Japanese-American  Relations.       11 

"Millard  Fillmore,  President  of  the  United  States  of  America,  to 

His  Imperial  Majesty,  The  Emperor  of  Japan. 
Great  and  Good  Friend: 

"I  am  sending  you  this  public  letter  by  Commodore  Matthew 
Calbraith  Perry,  an  officer  of  the  highest  rank  in  the  Navy  of  the 
United  States,  and  Commander  of  the  squadron  now  visiting  your 
Imperial  Majesty's  dominions. 

"I  have  directed  Commodore  Perry  to  assure  your  Imperial 
Majesty  that  I  entertain  the  kindest  feelings  toward  your  Majesty's 
person  and  Government,  and  that  I  have  no  other  object  in  sending 
him  to  Japan  but  to  propose  to  your  Imperial  Majesty  that  the 
United  States  and  Japan  should  live  in  friendship  and  have  commer- 
cial intercourse  with  each  other. 

"The  Constitution  and  laws  of  the  United  States  forbid  all  inter- 
ference with  the  religious  or  political  concerns  of  other  Nations. 
I  have  particularly  charged  Commodore  Perry  to  abstain  from  every 
act  which  could  possibly  disturb  the  tranquility  of  your  Imperial 
Majesty's  dominions. 

"The  United  States  of  America  reach  from  ocean  to  ocean,  and 
our  Territory  of  Oregon,  and  State  of  California,  lie  directly  oppo- 
site to  the  dominion  of  your  Imperial  Majesty.  Our  steamships  can 
go  from  California  to  Japan  in  18  days. 

"Our  great  State  of  California  produces  about  sixty  million 
dollars  in  gold  every  year,  besides  silver,  quicksilver,  precious  stones, 
and  many  other  valuable  articles.  Japan  is  also  a  rich  and  fertile 
country,  and  produces  many  very  valuable  articles.  Your  Imperial 
Majesty's  subjects  are  skilled  in  many  of  the  arts.  I  am  desirous 
that  our  two  countries  should  trade  with  each  other,  for  the  benefit 
both  of  Japan  and  the  United  States. 

"We  know  that  the  ancient  laws  of  your  Imperial  Majesty's 
Government  do  not  allow  of  foreign  trade,  except  with  the  Chinese 
and  the  Dutch ;  but  as  the  state  of  the  world  changes,  and  new  gov- 
ernments are  formed,  it  seems  to  be  wise  from  time  to  time,  to 
make  new  laws.  There  was  a  time  when  the  ancient  laws  of  your 
Imperial  Majesty's  Government  were  first  made.  About  the  same 
time  America,  which  is  sometimes  called  the  New  World,  was  first 
discovered,  and  settled  by  the  Europeans.  For  a  long  time  there 
were  but  a  few  people  and  they  were  very  poor.  They  have  now  be- 
come quite  numerous ;  their  commerce  is  very  extensive ;  and  they 
think  that  if  your  Imperial  Majesty  were  so  far  to  change  the  ancient 
laws  as  to  allow  a  free  trade  between  the  two  countries  it  would  be 
extremely  beneficial  to  both. 


12  Japanese  in  America 

"If  your  Imperial  Majesty  is  not  satisfied  that  it  would  be  safe 
altogether  to  abrogate  the  ancient  laws,  which  forbid  foreign  trade, 
they  might  be  suspended  for  five  or  ten  years,  so  as  to  try  the  ex- 
periment. If  it  does  not  prove  as  beneficial  as  was  hoped,  the  ancient 
laws  can  be  restored.  The  United  States  often  limit  their  treaties 
with  foreign  states  to  a  few  years,  and  then  renew  them  or  not,  as 
they  please. 

"I  have  directed  Commodore  Perry  to  mention  another  thing  to 
your  Imperial  Majesty.  Many  of  our  ships  pass  every  year  from 
California  to  China;  and  great  numbers  of  our  people  pursue  the 
whale  fishery  near  the  shores  of  Japan.  It  sometimes  happens  in 
stormy  weather,  that  one  of  our  ships  is  wrecked  on  your  Imperial 
Majesty's  shores.  In  all  cases  we  ask  and  expect  that  our  unfor- 
tunate people  should  be  treated  with  kindness,  and  that  their  prop- 
erty should  be  protected,  until  we  can  send  a  vessel  and  bring  them 
away.     We  are  very  much  in  earnest  in  this. 

"Commodore  Perry  is  also  directed  by  me  to  represent  to  your 
Imperial  Majesty  that  we  understand  there  is  a  great  abundance  of 
coal  and  provisions  in  the  East  of  Japan.  Our  steamships  in  cross- 
ing the  great  ocean,  burn  a  great  deal  of  coal,  and  it  is  not  conve- 
nient to  bring  it  all  the  way  from  America.  We  wish  that  our  steam- 
ships and  other  vessels  could  be  allowed  to  stop  in  Japan  and  supply 
themselves  with  coal,  provisions  and  water.  They  will  pay  for  them 
in  money,  or  anything  else  your  Imperial  Majesty's  subjects  may 
prefer;  we  request  your  Imperial  Majesty  to  appoint  a  convenient 
port  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Empire  where  our  vessels  may  stop 
for  this  purpose.    We  are  very  desirous  of  this. 

"These  are  the  only  objects  for  which  we  have  sent  Commodore 
Perry,  with  a  powerful  squadron,  to  pay  a  visit  to  your  Imperial 
Majesty's  renowned  city  of  Yedo;  friendship,  commerce,  a  supply 
of  coal  and  provisions,  and  protection  for  our  shipwrecked  people. 

"We  have  directed  Commodore  Perry  to  beg  your  Imperial 
Majesty's  acceptance  of  a  few  presents.  They  are  of  no  great  value 
in  themselves,  but  some  of  them  may  serve  as  specimens  of  the  ar- 
ticles manufactured  in  the  United  States,  and  they  are  intended  as 
tokens  of  our  sincere  and  respectful  friendship. 

"May  the  Almighty  have  your  Imperial  Majesty  in  His  great 
and  holy  keeping! 

"In  Witness  Whereof,  I  have  caused  the  great  seal  of  the  United 
States  to  be  hereunto  affixed,  and  have  subscribed  the  same  with 


Origin  of  Japanese-American  Relations.       13 

my  name  at  the  City  of  Washington,  in  America,  the  seat  of  my 
Government,  on  the  thirteenth  day  of  the  month  of  November,  in 
the  year  eighteen  hundred  fifty-two. 

(Seal  attached)  Your  good  friend, 

By  President:    (Signed)    Millard  Fillmore. 

Edward  Everett,  Secretary  of  State." 


The  Second  Landing. 

In  February,  1854,  Commodore  Perry  returned  within 
ten  miles  of  Uraga.  There  was  another  waste  of  time  in 
discussion  as  to  where  he  should  be  permitted  to  anchor, 
but  finally  the  Japanese  yielded  to  his  wish  and  a  new 
reception  building  was  erected  opposite  his  anchorage, 
and  the  Commodore  received  with  great  ceremony.  At 
the  reception  a  draft  of  the  treaty  which  Perry  had  been 
instructed  to  obtain  was  presented.  This  treaty  provided 
that  the  ports  of  Shimoda  and  Hakodadi  should  be  open  to 
American  vessels  and  that  they  be  permitted  to  purchase 
wood,  water,  provisions  and  coal.  It  was  provided  fur- 
ther that  shipwrecked  sailors  should  be  well  treated  and 
that  American  vessels  could  enter  any  Japanese  port  to 
make  repairs,  or  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  necessary 
food  and  water.  The  treaty  also  provided  that  the  gold  and 
silver  coins  of  the  United  States  might  be  exchanged  for 
either  the  Japanese  coins  or  their  goods.  It  was  signed 
on  the  31st  of  March,  and  was  the  first  step  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  diplomatic  relations  between  the  American 
and  Japanese  Governments. 

The  sight  of  Perry's  steam-propelled  ships,  their  pow- 
erful armament  and  the  specimens  they  carried  of  West- 
ern wonders  had  practically  broken  down  the  barriers  of 
Japanese  isolation  without  any  need  of  treaties  or  con- 
ventions. 


14  Japanese  in  America 

The  Establishment  of  Diplomatic  Relations, 

In  March,  1857,  Mr.  Townsend  Harris,  who  had  been 
appointed  American  Consul  General  to  Japan,  concluded 
a  second  treaty,  securing  to  citizens  of  the  United  States 
the  right  of  permanent  residence  at  Shimoda  and  Hako- 
dadi,  as  well  as  the  privilege  of  establishing  and  carrying 
on  trade  at  Nagasaki.  Consular  jurisdiction  was  also 
established. 

It  was  not  until  10  months  later,  when  Mr.  Harris  went 
to  Yedo,  that  he  secured  the  opening  of  other  ports  be- 
sides those  above  mentioned,  to  international  commerce. 
In  this  he  was  ably  assisted  by  Hoto  Masamutsu,  a  sincere 
advocate  of  the  opening  of  his  country.  Mr.  Harris  se- 
cured an  audience  with  the  Shogun  in  November,  1857, 
and  on  the  29th  of  the  following  July,  secured  a  treaty 
opening  Yokohama  to  commerce  between  the  United 
States  and  Japan. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Sixty- Six    Years    of    Commerce  and 
Diplomatic    Intercourse. 

T  A7ITH  Perry's  purpose  definitely  accomplished  and 
"  ■  the  treaty  of  1854  signed,  it  now  became  the  duty 
of  the  American  Government  to  establish  a  permanent 
Consul  General  in  Japan. 

Under  this  Treaty,  the  ports  of  Shimoda  and  Hakadadi 
were  opened  to  commerce  and  there  was  a  great  deal  of 
interest  in  establishing  commercial  relations.  American 
businessmen  were  particularly  anxious  to  get  into  this 
field  of  trade  that  the  Dutch  and  the  Chinese  had  enjoyed 
as  a  monopoly  for  so  many  years. 

The  First  Exchange  of  Ambassadors. 

Townsend  Harris,  a  particularly  capable  member  of 
the  American  Diplomatic  Staff,  was  appointed  Consul 
General  and  sent  out,  but  nearly  two  years  elapsed  before 
he  was  allowed  to  enter  Yedo  and  present  to  the  Tycoon 
a  letter  from  Pierce,  then  no  longer  President. 

When  the  Second  Treaty  had  been  signed  at  Yedo  in 
July,  1858,  it  was  with  the  express  provision  that  the 
ratifications  should  be  exchanged  at  Washington.  This 
meant  a  visit  of  Japanese  officials  to  this  country,  and 
accordingly  in  March,  1860,  the  Man-of-War,  Pow- 
hatan, with  the  envoys  and  retinue,  reached  San  Fran- 
cisco. 

As  no  means  of  comfortable  transportation  across  the 
continent  then  existed,  the  visitors,  after  a  few  days  of 
sight-seeing,  were  carried  on  the  Powatan  to  Panama, 
thence  by  rail  across  the  Isthmus.      The  Roanoke,   a 

[15 


16  Japanese  in  America 

United  States  naval  vessel,  then  transported  them  to 
Hampton  Roads,  where,  in  May,  they  were  officially 
received,  and  then  brought  to  Washington  on  the 
"Philadelphia."  They  landed  at  the  Navy  Yard  and 
were  escorted  with  a  great  deal  of  ceremony  to  their 
hotel.  The  envoys  and  retinue  comprised  76  persons  in 
all.  It  now  became  the  duty  of  the  Envoys  to  deliver 
the  presents  they  had  brought  with  them.  It  is  an  inter- 
esting historical  fact  that  these  presents  were  considered 
by  the  Japanese  one  of  the  most  important  parts  of  their 
entire  baggage. 

The  Treaty  itself  was  encased  in  a  finely  lacquered  box 
and  had  never  been  left  unguarded  since  leaving  Japan. 

Three  weeks  were  spent  in  sight-seeing  and  festivities 
before  the  Embassy  departed  for  Philadelphia  to  inves- 
tigate the  matter  of  money  and  exchange.  At  the  mint, 
assays  of  Japanese  and  American  coins  were  made  in  the 
presence  of  the  Embassy,  that  a  report  might  be  taken 
back  to  Japan.  The  Japanese  were  plainly  astonished  at 
the  sight  of  this  great  manufacturing  city.  They  were 
greatly  impressed  with  their  visits  to  the  various  mills, 
factories,  and  shops,  and  for  their  benefit  Dr.  Morton 
demonstrated  the  use  of  ether,  and  several  baloon  ascen- 
sions were  made  at  the  Gas  Works.  The  Drummond 
Light  was  examined  by  them,  as  were  the  Baldwin 
Locomotive  Works,  the  Water  Works,  and  a  type  foun- 
dry, and  they  were  presented  with  various  specimens  of 
American  mechanical  skill  and  inventive  genius. 

At  New  York  they  were  welcomed  with  a  great  parade, 
and  after  two  weeks  occupied  with  various  excursions 
and  social  entertainment,  the  Embassy  set  sail  on  the 
American  vessel,  Niagara,  for  home.  This  was  the  first 
opportunity  that  any  Japanese  had  had  to  visit  an  indus- 
trial country  and  they  were  greatly  impressed  with  what 
they  saw. 


Commerce  and  Diplomatic  Intercourse       17 

Underlying  all  of  the  entertainment  that  was  accorded 
them,  however,  was  the  manifested  desire  of  a  certain 
element  in  America  to  enter  into  commercial  relations, 
and  to  make  these  relations  highly  beneficial  to  them- 
selves. This  was  unquestionably  noted  by  the  Japanese 
and  left  a  deep  impression. 

The  New  York  Tribune,  commenting  upon  this,  said 
in  June,  i860: 

"If  they  have  acuteness  to  see  the  uses  to  which  they  have  been 
put  to  gratify  the  inordinate  greed  of  those  with  whom  they  have 
come  in  contact,  and  if  they  think  that  in  these  they  have  seen 
reflected  the  character  of  our  people,  then  heaven  help  our  reputa- 
tion in  Japan.  Of  almost  all  that  an  intelligent  traveler  would  want 
to  know  they  have  gone  away  as  ignorant  as  they  came." 

The  Japanese  returned  deeply  impressed  by  what  they 
had  seen,  and  from  this  visit  really  dates  the  beginning 
of  modern  Japan.  The  impression  made  upon  them  by 
this  visit  also  accounts  somewhat  for  their  subsequent 
attitude  toward  Americans  in  commercial  relations. 
They  knew  that  they  were  being  entertained  for  a  pur- 
pose, and  they  felt  that  this  purpose  was  a  purely  selfish 
one. 

The  Establishment  of  Commercial  Relations. 

The  first  commercial  agents  sent  to  Japan  had  not 
presented  themselves  to  the  Japanese  in  a  very  lovable 
light.  They  adopted  a  typical  Caucasian  attitude  toward 
races  of  a  different  color,  and  their  demeanor  was  gen- 
erally marked  by  arrogance.  They  were  unable  to  under- 
stand the  Japanese  attitude  toward  the  various  problems 
of  the  day,  and  approached  everything  with  a  degree  of 
suspicion  which  wounded  the  pride  of  the  Japanese.  It 
is  probably  true  that  the  general  average  of  these  over- 
seas comers  was  high,  but  nevertheless  they  were  unac- 
customed to  dealing  with  Orientals,  did  not  understand 


18  Japanese  in  America 

them,  and  they  were  constantly  looking  for  trickery  on 
the  part  of  all  of  the  Japanese.  For  this  reason  the 
various  problems  were  hard  to  solve. 

The  framers  of  the  Treaty  had  found  it  necessary  to 
deal  with  the  currency  question.  It  had  been  stipulated 
in  the  Treaty  that  foreign  coins  should  be  exchangeable 
for  Japanese,  weight  for  weight.  As  this  stipulation  did 
not  take  into  account  the  ratio  between  precious  metals 
which  was  15  to  i  in  Europe,  and  5  to  1  in  Japan,  a 
foreign  merchant  could  easily  become  wealthy  simply  by 
the  process  of  exchange. 

This  had  not  been  intended  by  the  framers  of  the 
Treaty,  and  when  the  Japanese  saw  the  effect  it  was 
having  upon  their  commerce  they  adopted  the  obvious 
expedient  of  changing  the  relative  weights  of  the  gold 
and  silver  coins.  This  was  considered  to  be  a  "gross 
violation  of  the  Treaty  rights"  by  the  foreign  element 
engaged  in  trade.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  any  other 
country  would  have  hesitated  to  apply  that  remedy.  The 
British  Representative,  Sir  Rutherford  Alcock,  did  not 
hesitate  to  declare  that  "in  estimating  the  difficulties  to 
be  overcome  in  any  attempt  to  improve  the  aspect  of 
affairs,  if  the  ill-disguised  enmity  of  the  governing  classes 
and  the  indisposition  of  the  Executive  Government  to 
give  partial  effect  to  the  treaties  be  classed  among  the 
first  and  principal  of  these,  the  unscrupulous  character 
and  dealings  of  foreigners,  who  frequent  the  ports  for 
purposes  of  trade  are  only  second  and  scarcely  inferior 
in  importance  to  the  sinister  character  of  the  influence 
they  exercise." 

Sir  Alcock's  comments  on  the  conduct  of  his  country- 
men were  caustic  and  his  various  dispatches  to  his  own 
Government  were  influential  in  determining  the  Brtish 
attitude. 


Commerce  and  Diplomatic  Intercourse       19 

There  were,  however,  many  cases  of  legitimate  dissatis- 
faction with  the  Japanese.  Japanese  official  interference 
was  constant  and  the  foreigners  may  have  felt  that  they 
were  surrounded  by  an  atmosphere  of  perplexity  and 
double  dealing.  All  of  these  difficulties  and  misunder- 
standings, however,  stirred  up  in  Japan  a  feeling  of 
resentment  against  the  foreigners  and  a  conviction  that 
the  opening  of  the  country  to  foreign  commerce  had  been 
a  mistake. 

Great  pressure  was  brought  to  bear  upon  the  Emperor 
by  the  governing  classes,  and  in  1861  he  issued  an  edict 
in  which  he  complained  of  the  "insufferable  and  con- 
tumelious behavior  of  foreigners,"  and  of  "loss  of 
prestige  that  was  constantly  menacing  the  country."  He 
further  openly  stated  that  it  was  his  intention  to  "drive 
out  the  aliens  in  ten  years."  This  edict  was  in  fact  an 
exhortation  to  every  Japanese  subject  to  organize  an  anti- 
foreign  crusade  and  this  was  indeed  its  effect. 

The  Imperial  Court  was  at  this  time  very  prolific  in 
anti-foreign  edicts,  and  in  one  of  them,  May  II,  1863, 
was  set  for  the  date  of  commencing  a  "barbarian  expell- 
ing campaign."  Copies  of  these  edicts  were  scattered 
throughout  the  feudatories,  and  the  Choshu  daimgo, 
without  awaiting  the  appointed  day,  opened  fire  upon 
American,  French  and  Dutch  merchant  men  passing 
through  the  Strait  of  Shimoneski.  The  ships  suffered 
no  injury  but  of  course  the  respective  governments  could 
not  condone  such  an  act.  They  therefore  joined  with  the 
British  and  dispatched  a  squadron  to  destroy  the  Choshu 
forts.  This  was  done  with  remarkable  ease  and  thor- 
oughly demonstrated  to  the  Japanese  their  own  incapacity 
when  foreign  powers  became  belligerent. 

The  Bakufu  Government  had  been  called  upon  to  make 
reparation  before  this  squadron  had  been  dispatched,  but 


20  Japanese  in  America 

had  failed  to  do  so.  Patriotic  Japanese  began  to  doubt 
the  strength  and  wisdom  of  the  Bakufu. 

The  Bakufu  Government  was  overthrown  in  1858  and 
a  new  Emperor  placed  on  the  throne.  One  of  the  first 
acts  of  this  new  government  was  to  invite  the  foreign 
representatives  to  the  Imperial  City  where  the  Emperor 
himself  received  them  in  audience,  an  act  of  extreme 
condescension  according  to  Japanese  canons  of  etiquette. 
An  Imperial  edict  announcing  the  sovereign's  determina- 
tion to  cement  amicable  relations  with  foreign  nations 
and  declaring  that  any  Japanese  subject  guilty  of  an  act 
of  violence  to  a  foreigner,  would  be  acting  in  contraven-. 
tion  of  his  sovereign's  commands,  was  announced. 

The  change  in  the  Nation's  demeanor  toward  foreign 
intercourse  was  complete.  The  hated  aliens  were  now 
invited  by  the  Emperor  to  his  presence  and  they  were 
greeted  as  welcome  guests.  Japan  had  been  taught  that 
she  was  powerless  in  the  face  of  Western  armaments, 
she  had  learned  that  national  effacement  must  be  the 
sequel  to  seclusion. 

This  complete  change  of  attitude  permitted  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  firmer  basis  for  commercial  relations  be- 
tween Japan  and  all  other  countries  of  the  world. 

Early  American  Exports. 

American  business  men  had  long  ago  decided  that 
Japan  furnished  a  most  excellent  outlet  for  the  factories 
and  farms  of  this  country.  Japan  was  then,  as  it  is  now, 
a  densely  populated  country  and  with  the  matter  of  ex- 
change decided,  and  a  comparatively  friendly  attitude  on 
the  part  of  the  Government,  American  business  men  could 
go  ahead  and  establish  an  export  and  import  trade.  Com- 
mercial agents  had  already  been  sent  to  Japan  and  the 
handicaps  under  which  they  had  previously  labored  were 


Commerce  and  Diplomatic  Intercourse       21 

now  removed.      Trade,  therefore,  had  good  possibilities. 
The  following  tables  give  at  least  an  idea  of  the  earlier 
exports,  their  class  and  value : 


Year  Ending  June  30,  i860. 
EXPORTS.  " 


Value 

6,288  bbls.  beef $72,033 

90  doz.  bottle  beer,  ale, 

port,  or  cider 

32  bbls.  biscuit 

50    books    or   maps,    no 

value  given. 

908  lbs.  butter 

271  lbs.  cheese 

$100  worth  earthen  and 

stoneware 

Gold,  and  silver  coins...  76,500 
1,010  lbs.  hams  and  bacon  150 
$220    worth     household 

goods  220 

Manufactures  of  iron.. .     1,615 

Jewelry  42 

120  lbs.  lard 39 

209  gals,  linseed  oil 209 

5,625  lbs.  mfg.  tobacco. .  675 
Duck  cloth 124 


293 
731 


292 
49 

100 


Value 

Manufactures  of  glass.. $  30 

Manufactures  of  wood..  391 

Paints  and  varnish 177 

Paper  and  stationery.. . .  65 

22  bbls.  pork 440 

80  bus.  potatoes 86 

280    gals,    spirits    from 

grain  551 

2,020  gals,   spirits   from 

molasses   1,750 

300    gals,    spirits    from 

other  sources 235 

50  bbls.  wheat  flour 400 

All  other  articles  man- 
ufactured (not  enum- 
erated)    4,000 

All    other    articles    raw 

(not  enumerated) 362 


Total  value  exported.. .  .$89,856 


22 


Japanese  in  America 


Year  Ending  June  30,  1861. 
EXPORTS. 


Value 

25  bbls.  beef $  275 

Biscuit 37 

Boards,  planks,  etc 1,971 

Brooms  128 

Butter 605 

Carriages  and  parts 240 

Cheese    323 

Copper 200 

Drugs  and  medicines. ..  219 

Gold  and  silver  coins. . .  1,500 

Hams  and  bacon 1,446 

Household  furniture 48 

Manufactures  of  iron. . .  1,029 

Jewelry 500 

Boots,  etc 329 

Tobacco  661 

Manufactures  of  glass. .  83 

Manufactures  of  wood..  426 

Musical  instruments 200 

Onions 65 


Paper  and  stationery...: 

Pork  

Potatoes 

Rye,  oats,  etc 

Saddlery 

Soap   

Spirits  from  grain 

Spirits  from  other  ma- 
terials  

Tar  and  pitch 

Vinegar 

Wearing .  apparel 

Wheat  flour 

Other  articles  manu- 
factured (not  enum- 
erated)   

Other  articles  raw  (not 
enumerated)    


Value 
\       46 

625 

227 
473 
170 
67 
260 

225 
42 
75 

307 

1,787 


703 
1,034 


Total  value  exports $14,876 


By  1870  exports  had  risen  to  a  total  value  of  $915,665, 
and  20  years  later,  in  1890,  they  amounted  to  $4,800,650. 
In  a  period  of  the  31  years  American  business  was  well 
established  in  the  Japanese  trade. 

Early  American  Imports, 

American  commercial  agents  were  very  quick  to  grasp 
the  fact  that  if  the  Japanese  were  to  purchase  their  goods 
they  would  also  have  to  buy  the  products  of  Japan.  An- 
other very  important  factor  in  determining  this,  was  the 
ratio  of  exchange,  and  as  the  United  States  was  entering 
upon  its  post-civil  war  prosperity,  there  was  a  constantly 
increasing  field  for  Japanese  merchandise. 


Commerce  and  Diplomatic  Intercourse       23 

The  following  tables  will  serve  as  an  example  of  the 
character  and  value  of  the  earliest  imports  from  Japan. 


Imports  from  Japan,  June  30,  i860. 


Living    animals    of    all 

kinds $  21 

Berries,  nuts,  dyes,  etc..  49 

35,012  lbs.  tea 4,103 

Silver  coins 5,000 

Paintings  and  statuary..  41 

Seeds,  trees,  bulbs,  etc...  22 

Articles  of  clothing 822 

Manufacturers    of    cop- 
per, not  specified 843 

Piece  goods  of  cotton. . .  13 

Dolls  and  toys  of  all  kinds  211 

Figs   135 

Other  fruits 284 

Furs,  undressed  on  skins  16 

700  lbs.  glue 57 

Gold  and  silver  leaf 13 

Honey  33 

Ink  444 

Side-arms 661 

Manufactures  of  ivory..  690 


Embroideries   

Potatoes   

Molasses 

Almonds    

Nuts  not  otherwise  spec- 
ified   

Whale  oil 

Oil  from  hemp  seed,  etc. 

Raw  hides  and  skins 

Piece  goods 

Raw  silk 

Sewing  silk 

Cinnamon   

China,  etc 

Japanned  chinaware. . . . 

Willow  

Other  manufactures  of 
wood  

Firewood 


7 
245 
323 
589 

211 

6 

149 

23 

2,419 

4 

11 

55 

1,397 

5,429 

14 

14 
79 


Total  imports  value $24,847 


24 


Japanese  in  America 


Imports  from  Japan,  June  30,  1861. 


Animals  of  all  kinds $ 

;     281 

Tea   

37,537 

Silver  coins 

3,569 

Copper  in  bars 

63 

Old  copper 

649 

Personal  and  household. 

241 

Maps  and  charts 

11 

Whale  oil 

320 

Seeds,  trees,  etc 

73 

Arrowroot   

1,508 

Indian  corn 

8 

Articles  of  wearing  ap- 

parel    

226 

Ready-made  clothing. . . 

276 

Coal  

685 

Copper  bottom 

46 

Nails    manufactured   of 

copper  not  specified. . . 

278 

Cordage  untarred 

1,566 

Manufacturers  of  cotton 

114 

Piece  goods 

566 

All  other  manufactures 

of  cotton 

4,615 

Dolls    and    toys    of    all 

kinds 

120 

Dried  fish 

43 

Fruits   

1,310 

Preserved  fruits 

472 

Furs,  dressed  on  skin 

127 

Furs,  undressed  on  skin. 

135 

Glass  manufactures 

1,240 

Glue  

4 

Gems  not  set 

11 

Jewelry  

51 

Manufactures  of  hair... 

105 

Honey  

238 

Fire-arms    

10 

Side-arms 

9 

Wire  19 

Embroderies    326 

Matting  1,296 

Potatoes   151 

Canned  meats 561 

Molasses   2,225 

Musical  instruments 46 

Almonds    59 

Cocoanuts  465 

Whale  oil 3 

Hempseed  oil 11,969 

Paper  and  stationery. . .  2,195 
Books  in  languages  other 

than  English 19 

Raw  hides  and  skin 482 

Crude  Saltpeter 121 

Sewing  silk 7 

Manufactures  of  silk...  81 

Cassia 172 

Nutmegs 39 

Tobacco  unmanufactured      370 

Umbrellas,  parasols 7 

China 1,658 

Japanned  chinaware 11,179 

Champagne  138 

Claret  154 

Cabinet    and    household 

furniture 642 

Willow    49 

Other  manufacturings 

of  wood 136 

Rosewood  109 

Other  cabinet  woods 18 

Firewood    102 

Shawls 11 

Total  imports  value.. .  .$102,522 


Commerce  and  Diplomatic  Intercourse       25 

By  1870  the  imports  amounted  to  $4,173,365,  and  in 
1891  had  risen  to  $19,307,198.  America  was  therefore 
an  excellent  Japanese  customer,  and  was  buying  a  large 
amount  of  Japanese  goods.  Japan  was  left  with  a  very 
favorable  trade  balance,  and  trade  was  constantly  grow- 
ing between  the  two  countries. 


The  First  Japanese  Immigratioil. 

The  Japanese  had  never  been  travelers.  A  limited 
number  had  visited  China,  but  so  provincial  was  their 
attitude  that  Japanese  had  been  at  one  time  subject  to  the 
death  penalty  for  leaving  the  shores  of  their  own  country. 
With  the  development  of  trade  came  a  change  in  Japanese 
psychology  and  some  of  them  left  the  mother  country 
seeking  increased  opportunities  in  other  parts  of  the 
world. 

The  earliest  American  statistical  records  regarding 
Japanese  immigration  show  that  a  total  of  nine  Japanese 
entered  America  in  1873.  In  1872  21  were  admitted,  of 
which  18  were  men  and  3  women.  In  1891  1,136  were 
admitted  by  Immigration  officials,  and  of  this  number 
only  113  were  women.  As  the  statistics  available  at 
this  period  are  neither  accurate  nor  comprehensive,  the 
information  furnished  is  more  or  less  open  to  criticism, 
but  there  is  nothing  to  show  that  the  immigration  was 
any  larger  than  the  number  recorded. 

The  Census  of  1870  reported  only  55  Japanese  residing 
in  the  United  States.  The  number  reported  in  1880  was 
148  and  in  1890  it  had  only  reached  2,039.  ^  1S  probably 
true  that  not  more  than  2,000  Japanese  arrived  in  any 
one  year  from  1893  to  1898. 

Until  1868  emigration  from  Japan  had  been  abso- 
lutely prohibited,  and  it  was  in  fact  not  definitely  legalized 


26  Japanese  in  America 

until  1885,  but  a  few  Japanese  sailors  and  students  had 
reached  the  American  shores. 

California  papers  in  1869  reported  a  few  scores  of 
Japanese  settling  at  Gold  Hill,  California.  They  were 
prospective  silk  growers,  and  were  received  with  great 
favor.  The  promoter  of  the  Colony  expected  more  to 
follow  but  evidently  his  expectation  was  not  realized  as 
the  project  failed. 

Its  Character, 

It  can  be  presumed  from  the  restrictions  on  immigra- 
tion that  those  Japanese  who  had  come  to  America  in 
the  early  days  possessed  much  more  than  the  average, 
both  of  resource  and  initiative.  The  trip  was  a  long 
and  hard  one,  they  were  under  penalties  upon  their  return 
to  Japan,  and  as  a  nation  they  were  not  travelers. 

The  American  Immigration  Statistics  give  the  occupa- 
tions of  those  who  arrived  in  1883  as  follows : 

1  Clergyman.  1  Metal  Roller. 

3  Engineers.  1  Hotel  Keeper. 

1  Clerk.  1  Laborer. 

1  Carpenter. 

and  the  occupation  of  those  arriving  in  1874  as : 

2  Clergymen.  1  Publisher. 
1  Tailor.                                                   3  Servants. 
1  Cook.                                                     2  Students. 

3  Laborers.  4  without  occupation. 

4  Merchants. 

It  is  evident  from  these  tables  that  professional  men 
and  men  of  more  than  the  average  wealth  were  the  first 
to  come.  Japanese  laborers  did  not  possess  the  initiative 
nor  were  they  aware  of  the  opportunities  existing  in 
America.  They  are  also  very  conservative,  and  up  to 
1 89 1  but  few  laborers  had  been  admitted  to  this  country. 


Commerce  and  Diplomatic  Intercourse       27 

In  1 89 1  the  class  of  immigrants  changed  considerably, 
and  of  the  1,136  admitted  281  were  laborers  and  172 
farmers.  As  the  type  of  farming  engaged  in  by  the 
Japanese  is  almost  wholly  that  requiring  hand  labor,  it 
can  be  presumed  that  from  an  American  standpoint  these 
farmers  were  in  reality  farm  laborers.  The  following 
table  gives  the  occupations  of  those  admitted  during  that 
year: 

1  Photographer. 

2  Actors. 
16  Artists. 

1  Chemist. 
1  Clergyman. 

1  Dentist. 

2  Engineers. 
1  Blacksmith. 

20  Carpenters. 
8  Clerks. 
12  Engineers. 

1  Gardener. 

2  Machinists. 
1  Manufacturer. 

Most  of  the  Japanese  who  came  directly  here  during 
this  period  were  young  men.  They  came  seeking  oppor- 
tunities to  study  or  to  better  themselves  in  an  economic 
way.  They  were,  of  course,  drawn  largely  from  the 
most  intelligent  and  ambitious  of  the  middle  class.  Along 
with  these  young  men  however  came  a  smaller  number 
of  older  men  who  had  failed  in  business  or  had  found 
farming  or  wage  labor  in  Japan  unattractive.  A  third 
class  came  from  Hawaii,  where  a  large  percentage  of 
the  total  number  had  been  drawn  from  the  poorest  and 
most  ignorant  class.  Many  of  the  most  ambitious  of 
these,  dissatisfied  with  their  lot  as  poorly  paid  plantation 
laborers,  availed  themselves  of  the  opportunity  to  come 
to  the  mainland. 


1  Miner. 

2  Shoemakers. 

6  Tailors. 

1  Watchmaker. 

2  Cattle  Dealers. 

1  Cook. 

172  Farmers. 

281  Laborers. 

162  Merchants. 

3  Officers. 

1  Servant. 

295  Students. 

138  No  occupation  given, 

28  Japanese  in  America 

Mexico  also  furnished  a  few,  as  did  Canada,  but  from 
this  period  on,  the  cities  furnished  a  decided  minority, 
and  farmers  and  farm  laborers  the  majority.  The  mo- 
tive was  almost  entirely  economic — they  did  not  leave 
Japan  to  escape  religious  or  political  persecution. 

Place  of  Settlement. 

As  San  Francisco  and  Seattle  were  the  ports  receiving 
the  most  of  the  immigrants,  California,  Washington, 
Oregon  and  Wyoming  became  naturally  the  places  of 
settlement. 

During  this  period  railroad  construction  work  was  at 
its  height.  Work  on  many  of  the  big  transcontinentals 
was  being  pushed,  and  even  those  Japanese  of  the  mer- 
chant class  found  that  profitable  employment  could  be 
secured  in  this  type  of  work. 

There  is  a  wide  discrepancy  between  the  number  of 
those  who  actually  settled  and  those  admitted.  This  is 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  despite  the  penalty  attached 
to  leaving  Japan,  there  was  a  tacit  understanding  on  the 
part  of  the  Japanese  Government  with  the  departing 
emigrant  that  he  would  not  be  penalized  upon  his  return 
to  his  own  country,  and  from  1875  the  Japanese  leaving 
the  mother  country  were  permitted  to  return.  Emigra- 
tion was  not  encouraged,  but  equally  it  was  not  punished. 
Very  few  of  the  first  numbers  to  arrive  became  perma- 
nent residents.  They  shifted  around  in  the  different 
States  in  the  West,  occupied  themselves  largely  by  hand 
labor,  and  were  to  a  great  extent  itinerant  laborers.  It 
can  be  presumed  that  great  numbers  of  them  eventually 
returned  to  Japan  as  the  census  figures  do  not  show  that 
they  settled  permanently  in  Continental  United  States. 

The  fundamental  reason  for  their  settling  in  the  West- 
ern States  was  their  nearness  to  the  port  of  San  Francisco. 


Commerce  and  Diplomatic  Intercourse       29 

San  Francisco  was  and  still  is  the  port  of  entry  for  the 
majority  of  the  Japanese.  Transportation  at  this  time 
across  the  country  was  somewhat  difficult,  and  they  were 
able  to  secure  employment  to  a  better  advantage  in  the 
West.  The  first  immigration,  like  that  of  today,  was 
largely  interested  in  agriculture,  and  the  opportunities  in 
this  line  were  unlimited  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  It  con- 
tained a  vast  area  of  undeveloped  agricultural  land  and 
labor  to  bring  this  land  to  cultivation  was  badly  needed. 
Land  was  also  very  cheap. 

With  the  West  as  the  first  place  of  settlement  it  was  not 
unnatural  that  such  colonizing  as  has  been  done,  was 
done  in  these  States.  It  was  for  that  reason  that  the  so- 
called  Japanese  problem  has  affected  only  the  Western 
States. 

Emigration  to  California. 

California  was  most  naturally  the  goal  of  the  Japanese 
due  to  the  fact  that  most  of  them  entered  by  way  of  the 
port  of  San  Francisco  and  naturally  settled  thereabouts. 
California  has  always  had  about  three-fifths  of  the  Japa- 
nese population  in  the  United  States.  This  unequal  dis- 
tribution has  resulted  from  the  fact  as  given  above,  and 
the  further  fact  that  the  climatic  conditions  and  oppor- 
tunities for  intensive  agriculture  were  better  in  this  State 
than  in  any  other. 

As  the  immigration  increased,  and  the  percentage  of 
laborers  to  those  of  other  occupations  became  greater,  the 
Japanese  employment  offices  and  boarding  houses  came 
into  existence.  The  Japanese  had  made  a  particularly 
determined  effort  to  meet  the  demands  of  those  in  Cali- 
fornia in  need  of  temporary  and  irregular  service,  and  a 
large  number  of  these  people  have  been  thus  occupied. 

California  agriculture  requires  at  certain  season  of  the 
year  large  numbers  of  farm  laborers.      The  State  has 


30  Japanese  in  America 

developed  orchards  and  small  fruits,  and  these  require  a 
class  of  hand  labor  that  the  Japanese  can  and  do  supply. 
California  therefore  has  been  a  favorite  spot  with  the 
Japanese.  He  has  found  the  best  opportunities  for  the 
particular  occupation  he  desired  to  engage  in.  A  great 
many  of  his  fellows  have  settled  there,  and  their  com- 
panionship has  helped  to  solve  his  social  problems.  The 
climatic  conditions  he  considers  most  desirable.  Cali- 
fornia therefore  became  the  center  of  the  Japanese  popu- 
lation in  America,  and  it  has  remained  so. 

The  Occupation  of  the  Immigrants, 

In  Japan  the  farmer  is  rated  higher  than  his  fellows 
engaged  in  trade  or  industry.  The  Japanese  farmer 
possessed  political  rights  not  conferred  upon  his  city 
brothers,  and  generally  occupied  a  much  higher  social 
scale.  This  condition  relates  back  to  feudal  days,  and 
it  is  only  in  Modern  Japan  that  the  tradesman  or  indus- 
trial worker  was  considered  of  any  particular  importance. 
From  an  American  standpoint  the  Japanese  farmer  is 
really  a  farm  laborer.  The  land  holdings  in  Japan  are 
unbelievably  small.  They  are  intensively  worked,  and 
of  course  worked  almost  entirely  by  hand  labor.  Farm 
animals  or  machinery  as  we  know  them  do  not  exist. 

As  the  number  of  immigrants  grew,  the  number  of 
Japanese  farmers  and  farm  laborers  grew  also.  The 
early  immigration  was  chiefly  employed  in  the  growing 
and  harvesting  of  crops,  and  they  rilled  a  need, in  Cali- 
fornia agriculture  that  was  not  filled  by  any  other  na- 
tionality. Because  of  their  ability  to  do  a  class  of  work 
that  was  not  done  by  the  whites,  they  soon  controlled  the 
hand  work  in  the  best  fields,  in  most  of  the  districts  in 
the  State.  They  did  and  still  do  practically  all  the  work 
in  the  berry  patches,  and  in  the  various  parts  of  the  State 


Commerce  and  Diplomatic  Intercourse       31 

specializing  in  certain  vegetables,  and  on  the  truck  farms 
near  the  city  thev  do  much  of  the  work.  A  great  deal  of 
the  seasonal  work  in  most  of  the  deciduous  fruit  district  is 
also  controlled  by  Japanese  laborers. 

The  majority  of  the  Japanese  have  been  and  are  today 
either  farmers  or  agricultural  workers.  Compared  with 
the  total  Japanese  population  in  America,  the  percentage 
of  those  engaged  in  trade  or  industry  is  small,  but  is 
increasing  rapidly,  due  somewhat  to  the  restrictions  upon 
land  ownership  and  leasing  that  have  been  passed.  If 
the  natural  bent  of  the  Japanese  immigrant  could  be 
followed  without  interference,  95  per  cent  of  them  would 
unquestionably  go  into  farming,  and  for  this  reason  they 
do  not  contribute  to  city  congestion,  and  its  attendant 
social  evils.  As  farm  laborers  and  farmers  they  have 
found  their  best  opportunities  in  California,  and  as  the 
larger  percentage  of  them  have  settled  in  this  State,  the 
Japanese  problem  more  acutely  affects  California  than 
any  other  section  of  the  country. 

Their  Ultimate  Americanization, 

The  most  general  indictment  against  the  Japanese  is 
that  they  are  incapable  of  assimilation  and  therefore 
cannot  be  Americanized. 

In  general  use  these  two  terms  are  synonymous,  but  it 
is  perfectly  possible  to  assimilate  a  people  without  Amer- 
icanizing them.  The  war  proved  beyond  a  question  that 
many  of  America's  foreign  born,  while  assimilated  at 
least  economically,  were  not  Americanized.  The  Japan- 
nese  present  a  very  different  problem  than  perhaps  any 
other  nationality,  but  they  can  be  both  assimilated  and 
Americanized,  as  subsequent  Chapters  of  this  book  will 
show. 


32  Japanese  in  America 

The  process  of-  Americanization  has  already  set  in.  It 
must  be  realized  that  it  is  only  within  the  last  60  years 
that  the  Japanese  have  had  any  contact  with  alien  races. 
They  therefore  are  a  most  provincial  people.  At  the 
same  time  they  are  and  always  have  been  very  proud. 
These  two  mental  combinations  present  to  some  degree 
an  obstacle  to  Americanization.  The  Japanese,  and  the 
laboring  element  particularly,  are  most  conservative. 
They  believe  in  their  own  traditions  and  themselves  most 
fully.  They  therefore  are  not  quick  to  respond  to  the 
different  ideas  and  ideals  met  in  a  new  environment. 

After  the  California  school  question,  however,  the 
Japanese  in  that  State  realized  that  there  was  something- 
wrong,  that  they  must  change  their  ways  of  thinking,  and 
must  attempt  to  adapt  themselves  to  their  new  surround- 
ings. This  was  urged  upon  them  by  prominent  Jap- 
anese in  the  old  country.  They  are  ready  organizers 
and  have  in  the  past  fifteen  years  created  a  number  of 
associations  that  are  helping  toward  this  ultimate  end. 

It  cannot  be  expected  that  an  alien  people,  particularly 
from  the  Orient,  could  adapt  themselves  to  Occidental 
customs  in  a  brief  period.  Therefore  the  Americaniza- 
tion of  the  Japanese  will  take  time.  The  second  genera- 
tion is  very  adaptable.  They  learn  quickly  and  as  their 
environment  is  occidental  they  rapidly  lose  contact  with 
the  old  associations. 

Various  agencies  are  in  the  field  to  teach  them  English, 
and  it  can  be  safely  stated  that  when  sufficient  time  has 
elapsed,  as  it  has  with  the  Italians  and  French  and  other 
nationalities  that  have  been  both  assimilated  and  in  most 
instances  Americanized,  the  Japanese  will  also  become 
Americanized. 

They  have  all  of  the  mental  attributes  necessary  to 
citizenship,  but  they  have  not  had  the  facilities  to  help 
them  to  understand  the  new  conditions. 


Commerce  and  Diplomatic  Intercourse       33 

Diplomatic  Relations  Until  the  California  School  Episode. 

Soon  after  the  Harris  Treaty  was  consummated,  con- 
sular jurisdiction  became  very  irksome  to  Japan.  Many 
of  the  foreign  powers  delegated  this  function  to  mer- 
chants who  were  not  only  deficient  in  legal  training,  but 
many  of  them  were  also  engaged  in  the  very  commercial 
transactions  upon  which  they  might  at  any  time  be  re- 
quired to  adjudicate  in  a  magistracial  capacity.  This 
system,  with  all  its  faults,  worked  until  the  patriotism  of 
the  Japanese  rebelled  against  the  "implication  that  their 
country  was  unfit  to  exercise  judicial  autonomy."  They 
spared  no  efforts  to  qualify  for  the  recovery  of  this  at- 
tribute, and  revised  their  laws  and  reorganized  their  law 
courts. 

In  1 87 1  Japan  requested  a  revision  of  the  Treaty  with 
particular  reference  to  consular  jurisdiction,  and  sent  an 
Embassy  to  America  to  press  the  matter,  but  as  no  refor- 
mation in  her  laws  had  been  made,  the  Embassy  failed. 

Formal  application  for  the  revision  of  the  Treaty  on 
the  basis  of  abolishing  consular  jurisdiction  was  made  in 
1883.  In  1878  the  United  States  had  set  a  generous 
example  by  concluding  a  new  Treaty  on  the  lines  desired, 
but  made  its  operation  conditional  on  a  similar  act  by 
the  other  powers.  The  recognition  demanded  by  Japan 
was  such  as  had  never  been  received  by  an  Oriental  State 
at  the  hands  of  Occidental  nations.  The  European  pow- 
ers were  very  loath  to  grant  them  what  they  wished,  and 
it  was  only  after  11  years  of  negotiations  that  Japanese 
tribunals  were  allowed  jurisdiction  over  every  person 
within  the  confines  of  Japan,  of  no  matter  what  nation- 
ality. Japan  on  the  other  hand  agreed  to  remove  all 
restrictions  upon  trade,  travel  and  residence. 

The  United  States  Government,  from  a  very  early 
period,  had  shown  its  willingness  to  remove  all  limita- 


34  Japanese  in  America 

tions,  and  although  Japan  was  having  trouble  with  China 
over  Korea  and  difficulties  with  Russia  which  culminated 
in  war,  there  was  an  extremely  good  feeling  between  the 
two  countries. 

This  was  strengthened  by  President  Roosevelt,  who 
took  the  initiative  in  bringing  about  peace  between  Japan 
and  Russia.  The  Portsmouth  Treaty  was  largely  brought 
about  by  Mr.  Roosevelt.  Representatives  of  the  bellig- 
erent nations  met  in  America  and  the  treaty  in  many  ways 
was  the  salvation  of  Japan.  She  emerged  from  this  war, 
in  the  eyes  of  the  world  at  least,  a  victor.  She  knew  that 
had  the  war  continued  for  any  length  of  time,  she  could 
not  have  won,  but  the  Treaty  of  Portsmouth  solved  her 
difficulties  and  this  was  made  possible  by  an  American 
President. 

While  the  feeling  between  the  two  governments  was 
friendly,  popular  sentiment  in  Japan  was  not.  While 
negotiations  were  in  process,  the  American  press  reversed 
its  attitude  and  became  suddenly  friendly  to  Russia.  This 
was  the  first  incident  in  5 1  years  of  diplomatic  intercourse 
that  had  created  any  unfriendliness  on  the  part  of  either 
power.  The  generous  attitude  of  the  American  Govern- 
ment had  won  even  the  most  conservative  Japanese. 
Every  diplomatic  matter  had  been  promptly  adjusted  on 
a  just  basis,  and  the  relations  had  been  both  amicable  and 
pleasant. 

The  California  School  Episode* 

There  had  long  been  agitation  in  California  against  the 
practice  of  permitting  mature  Japanese  men  to  attend  the 
primary  schools.  Most  of  the  Japanese  knew  very  little 
if  any  English,  therefore  their  schooling  began  with 
primary  work,  and  in  this  way  many  older  boys  were 
placed  in  schools  where  they  were  brought  in  contact 


Commerce  and  Diplomatic  Intercourse       35 

with  very  young  boys  and  girls.  This  was  resented  in 
many  sections  of  the  State.  It  had  been  an  issue,  and 
finally  culminated  in  the  San  Francisco  School  Board's 
attempt  to  separate  these  Oriental  pupils  and  to  segregate 
them  in  Oriental  schools.  This  came  in  1906,  after  the 
San  Francisco  earthquake. 

Oriental  schools  were  conducted  on  a  very  limited  scale 
prior  to  this  time,  but  no  effort  at  compelling  the  Japanese 
to  attend  these  schools  had  ever  been  made.  The  School 
Board  gave  as  one  of  its  reasons  for  this  action,  the  desire 
to  utilize  the  remaining  school  buildings  which  had  not 
been  destroyed  in  the  earthquake  and  fire  to  the  best  use, 
and  gave  as  its  opinion  that  segregated  schools  would  do 
this.  The  matter  was  agitated  and  furnished  a  great 
deal  of  press  comment.  The  Japanese  bitterly  resented 
this  attempt  at  segregation  and  promptly  appealed  to 
Washington,  claiming  that  this  was  a  violation  of  the 
treaties  existing  between  the  two  countries. 

At  the  same  time  a  Japanese  exclusion  act,  which  had 
been  desired  by  a  certain  element,  was  suggested  in  Cali- 
fornia and  the  school  incident  used  as  a  pretext.  The 
matter  was  argued  with  the  utmost  seriousness  in  the 
California  press,  but  would  probably  not  have  grown  to 
national  proportions  had  it  not  been  for  the  violation  of 
treaty  rights. 

The  California  position  was  that  as  the  public  schools 
of  California  were  state  and  not  federal  institutions,  the 
Federal  Government  had  no  power  to  intervene.  It  was 
held  that  the  State  had  the  right  to  abolish  or  maintain 
these  schools,  that  the  education  of  its  future  citizens  was 
purely  a  state  matter,  and  therefore  if  the  city's  treatment 
of  Japanese  children  was  a  violation  of  the  existing 
treaties,  it  was  still  a  state  matter.  The  Californians 
went  still  farther,  and  it  was  proposed  that  if  a  new 
treaty  should  be  consummated  which  would  contain  on 


36  Japanese  in  America 

behalf  of  Japan's  subjects,  "the  most  favored  nation" 
clause,  the  State  would  then  exclude  from  the  public 
schools  all  alien  children  of  whatever  nationality.  Jap- 
anese children  then  would  be  treated  exactly  as  children 
of  all  other  aliens,  and  would  not  be  discriminated  against. 

The  Japanese  Position, 

The  Japanese  Government  took  the  position  that  her 
subjects  were  being  discriminated  against  in  violation  of 
existing  treaties,  and  that  if  one  state  could  refuse  to  be 
bound  by  a  treaty,  ratified  by  Washington,  then  any 
other  state  could  do  the  same,  and  no  future  treaty 
would  be  worth  the  signature  of  a  foreign  power. 

The  Japanese  Government,  despite  the  American  press 
comments,  and  the  manifest  hostility  in  California,  main- 
tained an  attitude  of  the  utmost  calm.  This  point — the 
right  of  a  state  to  pass  legislation  violating  a  treaty — 
was  taken  into  consideration,  and  this  point  alone  em- 
phasized. The  matter  was  left  entirely  to  President 
Roosevelt's  decision. 

The  hostility  displayed  by  the  California  press  and  the 
varied  reports  of  Japanese  persecution  that  reached 
Washington,  led  the  President  to  dispatch  Secretary 
Metcalf,  one  of  his  cabinet,  to  San  Francisco  to  investi- 
gate the  entire  matter. 

7*Ir,  Roosevelt's  Position, 

After  a  very  thorough  hearing,  in  which  the  Cali- 
fornian  arguments  and  the  Japanese  position  had  been 
stated,  the  Secretary  made  his  report  to  the  President. 

With  his  characteristic  energy  and  foresight,  Mr. 
Roosevelt  immediately  incorporated  his  conclusions  in  a 
message  to  Congress  on  December  3,  1906,  in  which  he 
asked  the  following  legislation : 


Commerce  and  Diplomatic  Intercourse       37 

"That  an  act  be  passed  specifically  providing  for  the  naturaliza- 
tion of  Japanese  who  come  here  intending  to  become  American 
citizens,"  and  he  added,  "one  of  the  most  embarrassing  things  attend- 
ing the  performance  of  our  international  obligations  is  the  fact  that 
the  statutes  of  the  United  States  are  entirely  inadequate.  They  fail 
to  give  to  the  National  Government  sufficient  power  to  protect 
alien's  rights  and  to  succor  them  under  the  solemn  treaties  which 
are  the  laws  of  the  land.  I  therefore  earnestly  recommend  that  the 
criminal  and  civil  statutes  of  the  United  States  be  so  amended  and 
added  to,  as  to  enable  the  President  of  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment to  enforce  the  rights  of  aliens  under  the  treaties.  Even  as 
the  law  now  is,  something  can  be  done  by  the  Government  towards 
this  end,  and  in  the  matter  now  before  me  affecting  the  Japanese 
everything  that  is  within  my  power  to  do,  will  be  done,  and  all  the 
forces,  military  and  civil  of  the  United  States,  which  I  may  law- 
fully employ,  will  be  so  employed.  It  is  unthinkable  that  we  should 
continue  a  policy  under  which  a  given  locality  may  be  allowed  to 
commit  a  crime  against  a  friendly  nation." 

In  a  subsequent  message  dated  December  18,  1906,  the 
President  stated : 

"I  authorized  Secretary  Metcalf  to  state  that  if  there  was  failure 
to  protect  persons  and  property,  then  the  entire  power  of  the  federal 
government  within  the  limits  of  the  Constitution,  would  be  used 
promptly  and  vigorously  to  enforce  the  observance  of  our  treaty, 
the  supreme  law  of  the  land,  which  treaty  guaranteed  to  Japanese 
residents  full  and  perfect  protection  in  their  persons  and  property, 
and  to  this  end  everything  that  was  in  my  power  to  do  would  be 
done,  and  all  forces  of  the  United  States,  both  civil  and  military, 
which  I  could  lawfully  employ,  would  be  so  employed." 

Mr.  Roosevelt's  position  and  his  reputation  for  keeping 
his  word  led  the  San  Francisco  School  Board  to  recon- 
sider the  entire  matter.  Mayor  Schmitz  was  summoned 
to  the  White  House  by  the  President  for  a  conference, 
and  upon  his  return  to  San  Francisco  the  offending  pro- 
vision was  withdrawn  by  the  School  Board. 


38  Japanese  in  America 

Its  Prompt  and  Sympathetic  Settlement. 

The  California  school  episode  did  unquestionably 
change  popular  sentiment  in  Japan  from  one  of  extreme 
friendliness  towards  America  to  that  of  antipathy.  The 
Japanese  Government  maintained  a  dignified  attitude 
throughout,  and  took  into  consideration  all  of  the  circum- 
stances that  had  actuated  California  in  this  action.  They 
were  calmly  insistent  upon  their  treaty  rights,  however. 

After  submitting  their  contention  they  left  the  matter 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  American  President.  There 
was  no  effort  to  influence  his  decision,  and  the  Japanese 
Government  in  a  series  of  dignified  notes  simply  set  forth 
this  admitted  violation  of  the  existing  Treaties.  Mr. 
Roosevelt  not  only  insisted  that  the  San  Francisco  School 
Board  refrain  from  the  action  contemplated,  but  further 
threatened  to  employ  all  of  the  civil  and  military  forces  at 
his  command  to  prevent  the  enforcement  of  school  segre- 
gation. If  the  matter  could  have  been  handled  without 
the  sensational  press  comments,  the  feeling  left  would 
have  been  much  better.  The  circulation  of  the  California 
papers  was  entirely  dependent  upon  public  opinion,  and 
the  school  incident  was  very  prominent  in  the  State  at 
that  time.  The  better  class  of  Californian  opinion  was 
opposed  to  the  action  of  the  San  Francisco  School  Board, 
•  but  the  papers  made  much  of  the  matter  and  popular 
sentiment  was  perhaps  with  the  Board. 

The  Japanese  Government  adopted  a  sincere  attitude 
throughout,  but  they  did  insist  upon  treaty  provisions 
being  observed.  The  matter  was  easily  settled  by  the 
National  Government  due  to  the  prompt  and  energetic 
action  of  the  President,  but  it  left  the  whole  Japanese 
question  still  open.  California  desired  to  prevent  the 
Japanese  from  owning  land,  and  also  wished  a  limitation 


Commerce  and  Diplomatic  Intercourse       39 

upon  immigration.      Following  the  school  episode  there 
was  a  strong  feeling  against  the  Japanese  in  that  state. 

The  "Gentlemen *s  Agreement" 

Following  the  school  matter,  there  were  several  mat- 
ters which  tended  to  create  possibilities  of  friction  be- 
tween the  two  countries. 

The  Japanese  Government  was  unwilling  to  be  dis- 
criminated against  in  the  matter  of  immigration.  They 
insisted,  and  have  maintained  this  stand  since,  that  Jap- 
anese immigration  was  in  no  way  inferior  to  that  of  any 
other  nation  and  in  many  ways  was  superior,  and  for 
that  reason  they  did  not  feel  that  they  should  be  dis- 
criminated against.  The  Government  did,  however, 
realize  that  because  of  the  difference  in  the  standards  of 
living  and  the  unfriendly  feeling  in  California,  it  was  not 
feasible  for  the  United  States  Government  to  permit 
wholesale  immigration  from  Japan. 

There  was  some  agitation  against  the  Japanese  by  the 
labor  unions,  particularly  against  the  Japanese  laborers. 
It  was  felt  that  if  they  were  allowed  to  come  in  as  they 
had  been,  in  great  numbers,  they  would  lower  the  Amer- 
ican wage  rate,  and  as  a  consequence,  the  American 
standard  of  living.  The  Panic  of  1907  had  left  in  its 
wake  wide-spread  unemployment,  not  only  on  the  Pacific 
Coast,  but  throughout  the  nation.  The  laboring  element 
were  therefore  particularly  opposed  to  Asiatic  immi- 
gration. 

The  Japanese  Government,  after  much  negotiation, 
agreed  to  limit  the  issuance  of  passports  to  certain  classes 
only,  and  under  certain  conditions.  This  agreement  was 
not  incorporated,  nor  did  it  become  part  of  the  Treaty, 
but  was  simply  a  voluntary  acknowledgment  by  the 
Japanese  Government  of  the  American  position.      It  has 


40  Japanese  in  America 

since  been  known  as  the  "Gentlemen's  Agreement." 
Laborers  were  to  be  denied  passports  except  in  certain 
specific  instances,  and  only  a  very  limited  class  of  Jap- 
anese were  to  be  issued  passports  at  all. 

The  matter  of  immigration  was  therefore  solved  to 
the  best  interests  of  both  countries.  From  the  American 
viewpoint,  the  class  of  immigration  objected  to  was 
eliminated,  and  the  Japanese  were  not  placed  in  a  position 
where  they  were  forced  to  acknowledge  the  inferiority 
of  their  own  people. 

This  agreement  furnished  an  example  of  the  sympa- 
thetic attitude  of  the  Japanese  Government  toward  all 
questions.  They  were  not  bound  in  any  way  to  enter 
into  such  an  agreement,  as  the  then  existing  Treaties  did 
not  provide  for  this  limitation  on  their  emigration,  but 
they  met  the  situation  promptly. 

Elihu  Root,  at  one  time  Secretary  of  State,  paid  this 
tribute  to  the  Japanese  Government  at  a  Luncheon  in  New 
York  City  in  October,  19 17 : 

"I  wish  to  say  one  thing.  For  many  years  I  was  very  familiar 
with  our  own  Department  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  for  some  years  I 
was  especially  concerned  in  its  operation.  During  that  time  there 
were  many  difficult,  perplexing  and  doubtful  questions  to  be  dis- 
cussed and  settled  between  the  United  States  and  Japan.  During 
that  time,  the  thoughtless  or  malicious  section  of  the  Press  was 
doing  its  worst.  .  .  .  There  were  many  incidents  out  of  which 
quarrels  and  conflicts  might  have  arisen;  and  I  hope  you  will  all 
remember  what  I  say  of  them :  I  say,  that  during  all  that  time  there 
never  was  a  moment  when  the  Government  of  Japan  was  not  frank, 
sincere,  friendly,  and  most  solicitous,  not  to  enlarge  but  to  minimize 
and  do  away  with  all  cases  of  controversy.  None  who  has  any 
familiarity  at  all  with  life  can  be  mistaken  in  a  negotiation  as  to 
whether  the  one  with  whom  he  is  negotiating  is  trying  to  prevent 
or  trying  to  bring  about  a  quarrel.  It  is  a  fundamental  fact  about 
which  one  cannot  be  mistaken.  There  never  was  a  more  consistent 
and  noble  advocacy  of  peace,  of  international  friendship  and  of  real 
good  understanding  in  the  diplomacy  of  the  world,  than  was  ex- 


Commerce  and  Diplomatic  Intercourse       41 

tended  by  the  representatives   of  Japan,  both  here  and  in  Japan 
during  all  those  years  in  their  relations  to  the  United  States." 

Root'T ahahira  Understanding. 

During  the  latter  part  of  1908  the  two  governments 
consummated,  in  a  series  of  diplomatic  notes,  an  under- 
standing relative  to  Chinese  trade. 

The  Japanese  had  been  repeatedly  accused  by  a  ma- 
licious section  of  the  press  of  attempting  to  secure  com- 
mercial preference  in  China.  Under  the  so-called  "Open 
Door"  agreement,  Chinese  trade  was  to  be  open  to  all 
nations  subject  to  certain  spheres  of  influence.  The 
Japanese  Government,  on  November  30,  1908,  through 
the  Imperial  Embassy,  initiated  this  new  understanding. 
The  text  of  the  understanding  is  given  below : 

"Imperial  Japanese  Embassy, 
Washington,  November  30,  1908. 

Sir — The  exchange  of  views  between  us,  which  has  taken  place 
at  the  several  interviews  which  I  have  recently  had  the  honor  of 
holding  with  you,  has  shown  that  Japan  and  the  United  States, 
holding  important  outlying  insular  possessions  in  the  region  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  the  governments  of  the  two  countries  are  animated 
by  a  common  aim,  policy  and  intention  in  that  region. 

Believing  that  a  frank  avowal  of  that  aim,  policy,  and  intention 
would  not  only  tend  to  strengthen  the  relations  of  friendship  and 
good  neighborhood,  which  have  immemorially  existed  between  Japan 
and  the  United  States,  but  would  materially  contribute  to  the 
preservation  of  the  general  peace,  the  Imperial  Government  have 
authorized  me  to  present  to  you  an  outline  of  their  understanding 
of  that  common  aim,  policy  and  intention : 

1.  It  is  the  wish  of  the  two  governments  to  encourage  the  free 
and  peaceful  development  of  their  possessions  on  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

2.  The  policy  of  both  governments,  uninfluenced  by  any  aggressive 
tendencies,  is  directed  to  the  maintenance  of  the  existing  status 
quo  in  the  region  above  named,  and  to  the  defense  of  the  principle 
of  equal  opportunity  for  commerce  and  industry  in  China. 

3.  They  are  accordingly  firmly  resolved  reciprocally  to  respect 
the  territorial  possessions  belonging  to  each  other  in  said  regions. 


42  Japanese  in  America 

4.  They  are  also  determined  to  preserve  the  understanding  of  all 
powers  in  China  by  supporting  by  all  pacific  means  at  their  disposal 
the  independence  and  integrity  of  China,  and  the  principle  of  equal 
opportunity  for  commerce  and  industry  of  all  nations  in  that  Empire. 

5.  Should  any  event  occur  threatening  the  status  quo  as  above 
described,  or  the  principle  of  equal  opportunity  as  above  defined,  it 
remains  for  the  two  governments  to  communicate  with  each  other  in 
order  to  arrive  at  an  understanding  as  to  what  measures  they  may 
consider  it  useful  to  take. 

If  the  foregoing  outline  accords  with  the  view  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  I  shall  be  grateful  to  receive  your  con- 
firmation. 

I  take  this  opportunity  to  renew  to  your  Excellency,  the  assur- 
ances of  my  highest  consideration. 

K.  Takahira. 
Hon.  Elihu  Root,  Secretary  of  State" 


"Department  of  State, 
Washington,  November  30,  1908. 

Excellency — I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  receipt  of  your 
note  of  today  setting  forth  the  result  of  the  exchange  of  the  views 
between  us  in  our  recent  interviews  defining  the  understanding  of 
the  two  governments  in  regard  to  their  policy  in  the  region  of 
the  Pacific  Ocean. 

It  is  a  pleasure  to  inform  you  that  this  expression  of  mutual 
understanding  is  welcome  to  the  United  States  Government  as 
appropriate  to  the  happy  relations  of  the  two  countries,  and  as  the 
occasion  for  a  concise  mutual  affirmation  of  that  accordant  policy 
regarding  the  Far  East  which  the  two  governments  have  so 
frequently  declared  in  the  past. 

I  am  happy  to  be  able  to  confirm  to  your  Excellency,  on  behalf 
of  the  United  States,  the  declaration  of  the  two  governments  em- 
bodied in  the  following  words  : 

1.  It  is  the  wish  of  the  two  governments  to  encourage  the  free 
and  peaceful  development  of  their  possessions  on  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

2.  The  policy  of  both  governments,  uninfluenced  by  any  ag- 
gressive tendencies,  is  directed  to  the  maintenance  of  the  existing 
status  quo  in  the  region  above  named,  and  to  the  defense  of  the 
principle  of  equal  opportunity  for  commerce  and  industry  in  China. 


Commerce  and  Diplomatic  Intercourse       43 

3.  They  are  accordingly  firmly  resolved  reciprocally  to  respect 
the  territorial  possessions  belonging  to  each  other  in  said  regions. 

4.  They  are  also  determined  to  preserve  the  understandings  of 
all  powers  in  China  by  supporting  by  all  pacific  means  at  their 
disposal,  the  independence  and  integrity  of  China,  and  the  principle 
of  equal  opportunity  for  commerce  and  industry  of  all  nations  in 
that  Empire. 

5.  Should  any  event  occur  threatening  the  status  quo  as  above 
described,  or  the  principle  of  equal  opportunity  as  above  defined,  it 
remains  for  the  two  governments  to  communicate  with  each  other 
in  order  to  arrive  at  an  understanding  as  to  what  measures  they 
may  consider  it  useful  to  take. 

Accept  Excellency,  the  renewed  assurances  of  my  highest  con- 
sideration. 

Elihu  Root. 
His  Excellency,  Baron  Kogoho  Takahira." 

With  the  consummation  of  this  understanding  was 
closed  an  embarrassing  situation  to  the  two  governments 
which  had  been  largely  brought  about  through  the  ma- 
liciousness of  a  certain  section  of  the  American  press. 

The  Lansing-lshii  Understanding. 

To  further  clarify  the  Chinese  situation  an  additional 
agreement  between  the  two  countries  was  consummated  in 
November,  1917.  This  was  known  as  the  Lansing-lshii 
Agreement,  and  set  forth  the  exact  understandings  ar- 
rived at  between  the  two  nations  relative  to  the  Chinese 
trade  and  concessions.  This  in  fact  reaffirmed  the  princi- 
ple of  the  "Open  Door,"  guaranteeing  an  equal  oppor- 
tunity for  commerce  and  trade  to  all. 

The  agreement  was  made  necessary  because  of  the 
attacks  made  on  the  Japanese  Government  by  the  Amer- 
ican press.  This  amounted  to  an  affirmation  of  the  agree- 
ment in  1907  known  as  the  Root-Takahira  understanding. 


44  Japanese  in  America 

Text  of  the  Lansing-Ishii  Agreement: 

"Secretary  of  State 

of  THE 

Ambassador  Extraordinary  and  Plenipotentiary  of  Japan, 

On  Special  Mission. 

Department  of  State, 
Washington,  November  2,  1917. 

Excellency — I  have  the  honor  to  communicate  herein  my  under- 
standing of  the  agreement  reached  by  us  in  our  recent  conversations 
touching  the  questions  of  mutual  interest  to  our  governments 
relating  to  the  Republic  of  China. 

In  order  to  silence  mischievous  reports  that  have  from  time  to 
time  been  circulated,  it  is  believed  by  us  that  a  public  announcement 
once  more  of  the  desires  and  intents  shared  by  our  two  govern- 
ments with  regard  to  China  is  advisable. 

The  governments  of  the  United  States  and  Japan  recognize  that 
territorial  propinquity  creates  special  relations  between  countries, 
and,  consequently,  the  Government  of  the  United  States  recognizes 
that  Japan  has  special  interests  in  China,  particularly,  in  the  part  to 
which  her  possession  are  contiguous. 

The  territorial  sovereignty  of  China,  nevertheless,  remains  unim- 
paired, and  the  Government  of  the  United  States  has  every  con- 
fidence in  the  repeated  assurances  of  the  Imperial  Japanese  Govern- 
ment, that  while  geographic  position  gives  Japan  such  special  in- 
terests, they  have  no  desire  to  discriminate  against  the  trade  of 
other  nations  or  to  disregard  the  commercial  rights  heretofore 
granted  by  China  in  treaties  with  other  powers. 

The  governments  of  the  United  States  and  Japan  deny  that  they 
have  any  purpose  to  infringe  in  any  way  the  independence  or  terri- 
torial integrity  of  China,  and  they  declare,  furthermore,  that  they 
always  adhere  to  the  principle  of  the  so-called  "Open  Door"  or 
equal  opportunity  for  commerce  and  industry  in  China. 

Moreover,  they  mutually  declare  that  they  are  opposed  to  the 
acquisition  by  any  government  of  any  special  rights  or  privileges 
that  would  affect  the  independence  or  territorial  integrity  of  China, 
or  that  would  deny  to  the  subjects  or  citizens  of  any  country  the 
full  enjoyment  of  equal  opportunity  in  the  commerce  and  industry 
of  China. 

I  shall  be  glad  to  have  Your  Excellency  confirm  this  understand- 
ing of  the  agreement  reached  by  us. 


Commerce  and  Diplomatic  Intercourse       45 

Accept,  Excellency,  the  renewed  assurances  of  my  highest  con- 
sideration. 

Robert  Lansing. 
His  Excellency,  Viscount  Kikijiro  Ishii,  Ambassador  Extraordinary 
and  Plenipotentiary  of  Japan,  on  Special  Mission." 


"Ambassador  Extraordinary  and  Plenipotentiary  of  Japan, 
On  Special  Mission 

to  the 
Secretary  of  State. 

The  Special  Mission  of  Japan, 

Washington,  November  2,  1917. 

Sir — I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  note  of 
today,  communicating  to  me  your  understanding  of  the  agreement 
reached  by  us  in  our  recent  conversations  touching  the  questions  of 
mutual  interest  to  our  governments  relating  to  the  Republic  of  China. 

I  am  happy  to  be  able  to  confirm  to  you,  under  authority  of  my 
government,  the  understanding  in  question,  set  forth  in  the  follow- 
ing terms : 

The  governments  of  Japan  and  the  United  States  recognizes 
that  territorial  propinquity  creates  special  relations  between  coun- 
tries, and,  consequently,  the  Government  of  the  United  States 
recognizes  that  Japan  has  special  interests  in  China,  particularly, 
in  the  part  to  which  her  possessions  are  contiguous. 

The  territorial  sovereignty  of  China,  nevertheless,  remains  unim- 
paired, and  the  Government  of  the  United  States  has  every  confi- 
dence in  the  repeated  assurances  of  the  Imperial  Japanese  Govern- 
ment that  while  geographic  position  gives  Japan  such  special 
interests,  they  have  no  desire  to  discriminate  against  the  trade  of 
other  nations,  or  to  disregard  the  commercial  rights  heretofore 
granted  by  China  in  treaties  with  other  powers. 

The  governments  of  the  United  States  and  Japan  deny  that  they 
have  any  purpose  to  infringe  in  any  way  the  independence  or 
territorial  integrity  of  China,  and  they  declare,  furthermore,  that 
they  always  adhere  to  the  principle  of  the  so-called  'Open  Door*  or 
equal  opportunity  for  commerce  and  industry  in  China. 

Moreover  they  mutually  declare  that  they  are  opposed  to  the 
acquisition  by  any  government  of  any  special  rights  or  privileges 
that  would  affect  the  independence  or  territorial  integrity  of  China, 
or  that  would  deny  to  the  subjects  or  citizens  of  any  country  the 


46  Japanese  in  America 

full  enjoyment  of  equal  opportunity  in  the  commerce  and  industry 
of  China. 

I  take  this  opportunity  to  convey  to  you,  Sir,  the  assurance  of 
my  highest  consideration. 

K.  Ishii, 
Ambassador  Extraordinary  and  Plenipotentiary  of  Japan, 

on  Special  Mission. 
Hon.  Robert  Lansing,  Secretary  of  State." 

Efforts  of  the  Japanese  Government  to  Keefi  This  Agree- 
ment in  Every  Particular, 

No  diplomatic  understanding  between  two  nations  has 
been  so  constantly  the  subject  of  criticism  as  the  so-called 
"Gentlemen's  Agreement,"  limiting  Japanese  emigration 
to  this  country. 

The  "yellow"  papers  particularly  have  accused  the  Jap- 
anese Government  of  every  violation  of  this  agreement 
that  could  be  possibly  imagined.  It  has  been  repeatedly 
charged  that  the  Japanese  Government  willfully  were 
camouflaging  the  occupations  of  a  majority  of  the  immi- 
grants, thus  passing  laborers  into  this  country  under  the 
guise  of  some  other  occupation.  It  has  been  further 
charged  that  the  Japanese  Government  was  interested  in 
certain  colonization  schemes  in  Mexico  and  that  Japanese 
were  brought  across  the  border,  thus  securing  entry  to 
this  country  without  passports. 

There  has  never  been  a  scintilla  of  direct  evidence  to 
show  that  the  Japanese  Government  has  in  any  way  aided 
or  abetted  a  single  immigrant  to  enter  this  country  in 
violation  of  this  agreement.  When  the  scare  copy  is 
analyzed  it  proves  to  be  mere  rumor  and  mostly  manu- 
factured rumor  at  that. 

There  probably  have  been  instances  where  an  individual 
applicant  for  a  passport  has  misstated  his  occupation,  and 
the  investigation  of  the  Government  not  disclosed  his  true 
status.     This  could  happen  with  any  class  of  immigration 


Commerce  and  Diplomatic  Intercourse       47 

and  frequently  does.  In  all  instances  where  there  is  a 
question  the  American  Immigration  Officials  are  at  liberty 
to  hold  the  immigrant  pending  an  investigation.  There 
have  been  but  few  cases  of  this  character  and  those  which 
have  occurred,  do  not  show  bad  faith  on  the  part  of  Tokio. 
No  American  government  official  has  ever  charged 
the  Japanese  Government  with  violating  this  agreement, 
and  practically  all  of  them  have  paid  high  tribute  to  it. 
The  agreement  is  not  incorporated  in  any  treaty,  but  is 
simply  an  understanding  between  the  two  governments, 
and  it  has  been  kept  to  the  letter. 

Commercial  Relations  in  1854. 

The  United  States  has  for  years  been  Japan's  chief 
customer  in  silk.  Almost  half  of  the  total  imports  from 
that  country  are  and  have  been  of  that  material.  In  the 
year  19 17,  $124,924,951  was  spent  for  raw  silk  alone 
and  manufactured  silk  during  the  same  period  was  pur- 
chased at  a  cost  of  $9,085,356. 

In  addition  to  silk  the  imports  have  been  tea,  some 
minerals,  copper  chiefly,  and  various  sundries.  The 
United  States  and  Canada  are  the  only  countries  using 
Japanese  tea  in  large  quantities,  as  the  European  countries 
purchase  chiefly  the  Indian  and  Chinese  article.  We  have 
also  imported  in  the  sundry  list :  umbrellas,  matches,  toys, 
certain  grades  of  cheap  hardware,  pottery  and  paper 
goods.  Up  to  the  last  five  years  the  quality  of  Japanese 
manufactured  products  has  not  been  high. 

The  United  States  is  one  of  Japan's,  best  customers  and 
has  been  for  over  half  a  century. 

In  exports,  America  has  never  sold  the  quantity  or 
value  of  goods  that  she  has  purchased  from  Japan,  and 
consequently  the  trade  balance  has  always  been  with 
Japan.      In  the  66  years  of  commercial  relations,  a  vast 


48  Japanese  in  America 

trade  has  been  built  up  between  the  two  countries  and 
despite  the  fact  that  Japan  still  retains  a  trade  balance 
she  is  our  best  Oriental  customer. 

Jafian  as  a  First-class  Commercial  Power, 

Emerging  from  her  isolation,  Japan  has  become  a 
first-class  commercial  power  in  the  shortest  period  of 
record.  During  the  feudal  days,  and  in  fact  up  to  the 
last  twenty  years,  she  was  primarily  an  agricultural  na- 
tion. Realizing  the  necessity  of  adding  manufacturing 
to  her  economic  scheme,  she  went  in  energetically  to  study 
the  various  problems  this  would  entail.  Unfortunately 
much  of  her  manufacturing  is  done  under  adverse  condi- 
tions. The  work  is  largely  carried  on  by  women  and 
children  under  unfavorable  conditions,  and  as  a  result 
her  workmanship  has  not  been  of  the  best.  Japanese 
craftsmen  have  been  slow  to  enter  industry. 

She  has  been  limited  in  raw  materials,  but  despite  each 
and  every  handicap  she  has  built  up  a  substantial  export 
trade,  particularly  with  China,  the  Philippines  and  the 
surrounding  countries.  The  Japanese  have  also  come 
into  shipping,  and  during  the  war  practically  dominated 
the  shipping  trade  on  the  Pacific.  Considering  the  short 
space  of  time  and  the  immense  handicaps,  the  Japanese 
have  made  a  remarkable  success  of  manufacturing  and 
trade,  and  Japan  has  become  a  first-class  commercial 
power. 

Jafian  as  a  Customer, 

American  exports  to  Japan  have  been  comprised  chiefly 
of  raw  materials.  Cotton,  iron,  steel,  lumber  and  leather 
have  formed  the  bulk  of  this  trade,  with  raw  cotton  as 
the  most  important.  Japan  raises  only  a  small  portion  of 
the  cotton  the  country  requires  although  various  unsuc- 
cessful attempts  have  been  made  to  encourage  its  growth. 


Commerce  and  Diplomatic  Intercourse       49 

Iron,  steel,  rods  and  pipes,  iron  plates,  roofing  and 
galvanized  iron  form  the  bulk  of  the  manufactured  prod- 
ucts sold.  Japan  has  always  been  a  great  importer  of 
leather,  and  most  of  it  has  been  purchased  from  this 
country.  Recently  an  attempt  was  made  to  supply  this 
want  by  her  own  products,  but  it  is  not  feasible  as  she 
is  not  a  stock  raising  country,  and  has  not  the  territory 
to  go  into  the  business.  The  Japanese  trade  forms  a 
large  part  of  America's  Oriental  commerce,  and  has  been 
constantly  growing  since  the  visit  of  Commodore  Perry. 

Japanese  imports  are  given  from  the  year  1900  to  the 
end  of  19 19  in  the  following  table : 

Year                                Yen.  Year  Yen. 

1900 287,261,846     1910 464,233,808 

1901 255,816,645     1911 513,805,705 

1902 271,731,259     1912 618,992,277 

1903 317,135,518     1913 729,431,644 

1904 371,360,738     1914 595,735,725 

1905 488,538,017     1915 532,449,938 

1906 418,784,108     1916 756,427,910 

1907 494,467,346     1917 1,035,792,443 

1908 436,257,462     1918 1,668,143,833 

1909 394,198,843     1919 2,173,459,880 

Future  Commercial  Relations. 

As  the  manufacturing  industries  of  Japan  develop  she 
will  need  more  and  more  raw  material.  There  is  every 
probability  that  it  will  be  chiefly  supplied  by  the  United 
States. 

In  the  cheaper  manufactured  articles  America  has 
never  been  able  to  compete  with  either  England  or  Ger- 
many, but  there  is  a  widening  field  for  cotton  spinning 
and  weaving  machinery  and  also  electrical  and  silk  weav- 
ing machinery. 

Japanese  manufacturing  interests  are  requiring  more 
and  more  of  the  intricate  machinery  specialized  in  by 


50  Japanese  in  America 

American  industry,  and  it  is  this  market  and  the  basic 
market  for  raw  materials  that  the  United  States  can  and 
will  fill. 

Japan  has  been  a  very  good  customer  of  America,  and 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  if  the  diplomatic 
questions  can  be  properly  solved  future  commercial  rela- 
tions will  be  of  benefit  to  both  nations. 

The  following  tables  indicate  the  trend  of  the  trade 
between  the  two  countries.  Figures  are  given  of  both 
the  export  and  import  trade  from  the  year  1900  to  19 19. 

Year             Yen.  Year  Yen. 

1900 491,691,840     1910 922,662,804 

1901 508,166,188     1911 961,239,534 

1902 530,034,324     1912 1,145,974,119 

1903 606,637,960     1913 1,361,891,857 

1904 690,621,634     1914 1,186,837,186 

1905 810,071,627     1915 1,240,756,935 

1906 842,539,000     1916 1,883,896,028 

1907 926,880,291     1917 2,638,797,476 

1908 814,503,135     1918 3,630,244,501 

1909 807,311,354     1919 4,272,332,497 

Divide  Yen  by  two  for  dollars. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  trade  has  increased  nearly  ten 
times  since  the  year  1900  and  has  doubled  since  19 16. 


CHAPTER  III. 

The   Attitude   of  Representative   Americans 
Toward  the  Japanese  in  America. 

TT  is  unfortunate  that  the  enemies  of  the  Japanese  con- 
*  trol  such  an  immense  volume  of  press  space,  and  their 
friends  so  little.  These  people  have  been  the  subject  of  a 
campaign  of  press  propaganda  that  has  never  been 
equalled  in  American  history. 

The  Views  of  Distinguished  Americans, 

Irrespective  of  this  propaganda,  the  Japanese  people, 
and  particularly  those  who  have  settled  in  this 
country,  have  some  genuine  friends.  Mr.  Elihu  Root 
some  time  ago  publicly  paid  a  very  high  tribute  to 
Japanese  diplomacy.  Colonel  Theodore  Roosevelt,  some 
six  months  prior  to  his  death,  wrote  a  short  pamphlet 
covering  his  views  on  the  entire  Japanese  problem. 

Throughout  Mr.  Roosevelt's  political  career  he  was  a 
sincere  admirer  of  the  qualities  that  have  carried  these 
people  so  far  as  a  nation.  It  was  his  firm  stand  that 
solved  the  California  School  difficulty,  and  upon  many 
occasions  he  voiced  his  admiration  for  those  Japanese 
characteristics  which  have  brought  Japan  to  her  present 
eminence.  Mr.  Roosevelt  was  particularly  incensed  by 
the  propaganda  carried  on  against  Japan  when  she  was 
fighting  as  an  ally  against  the  Germans.  Upon  several 
occasions  he  paid  his  respects  to  these  propagandists  in 
no  uncertain  terms.  His  paper  was  written  with  this 
war-time  thought  as  its  dominant  note.  It  is  reprinted 
in  full. 

151] 


52  Japanese  in  America 

Mr.  Roosevelt* s  Views. 

"Japan's  career  during  the  past  fifty  years  has  been  without 
parallel  in  world  history.  Japan  has  played  a  part  of  extraordinary 
usefulness  to  the  allied  cause  in  this  war  for  civilization.  Japan's 
friendship  should  be  peculiarly  dear  to  the  United  States,  and  every 
farsighted  public  man  in  the  United  States  should  do  his  utmost  to 
keep  a  cordial  working  agreement  of  sympathy  between  the  two 
nations.  These  three  facts  should  be  continually  in  the  minds  of 
every  good  American,  and  especially  at  this  precise  moment.  Japan's 
sudden  rise  into  a  foremost  position  among  the  Occidental  civilized 
powers  has  been  an  extraordinary  phenomenon.  There  has  been 
nothing  in  the  past  in  any  way  approaching  it.  No  other  nation  in 
history  has  ever  so  quickly  entered  the  circle  of  civilized  powers. 

"It  took  the  yellow-haired  barbarians  of  the  north,  who  over- 
threw Rome,  six  or  eight  centuries  before  the  civilization  they  built 
up  even  began  to  approach  the  civilization  they  had  torn  down; 
whereas,  Japan  tore  down  nothing  and  yet  reached  the  level  of  her 
western  neighbors  in  half  a  century.  Moreover,  she  entered  the 
circle  of  the  higher  civilization,  bearing  gifts  in  both  hands.  Her 
appreciation  of  art  and  nature,  her  refinement  of  life,  and  many 
of  her  social  conventions,  together  with  her  extraordinary  and 
ennobling  patriotism,  convey  lessons  to  us  of  America  and  Europe 
which  we  shall  do  well  to  learn.  Every  thoughtful  American  who 
dwells  on  the  relations  between  Japan  and  the  United  States  must 
realize  that  each  has  something  to  learn  from  the  other. 

"In  this  war  Japan  has  played  a  great  and  useful  part.  That  she 
had  her  special  and  peculiar  grievances  against  Germany  goes 
without  saying.  So  had  we.  She  took  these  grievances  into  account 
precisely  as  we  took  our  grievances  into  account.  But  she 
ranged  herself  on  the  side  of  humanity  and  freedom  and  justice 
exactly  as  we  did.  Her  duty  has  been,  first  of  all,  to  drive  Germany 
from  the  Pacific  and  to  police  and  protect  the  Orient.  If  she  had 
not  done  this  it  is  probable  that  at  the  present  moment  a  British  and 
American  force  would  be  besieging  Kiao  Chau  and  that  our  com- 
merce would  be  suffering  from  German  raids  in  the  Pacific.  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  are  able  to  keep  their  fleets  out  of  the 
Pacific  at  this  moment  because  the  Japanese  fleet  is  there. 

"But  she  has  done  much  more  than  this.  Gradually,  as  the  war 
has  grown,  she  has  extended  her  assistance  all  over  the  globe.  Her 
volunteers  have  appeared  in  that  most  hazardous  of  all  military 


Attitude  of  Representative  Americans       53 

branches,  the  air  service,  at  the  extreme  righting  front.  She  has 
sent  her  destroyers  to  protect  English  and  American  troop  ships  and 
cargo  ships  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the  North  Sea  and  the  Medi- 
terranean. Japan's  part  has  been  great;  far  greater  than  anything 
that  she  was  called  upon  to  do  by  her  alliance  with  Great  Britain. 
She  first  captured  Kiao  Chau  and  sank  all  the  Austrian  and  German 
ships  there.  She  then  drove  the  German  ships  out  of  the  Pacific. 
Soon  thereafter  she  lent  three  of  her  cruisers  to  Russia  to  strengthen 
her  fleet  in  the  Baltic.  At  present  her  destroyers  are  working 
together  with  the  British  and  American  destroyers  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  and  off  the  coasts  of  England,  Spain  and  France.  Her 
submarines  have  been  working  in  company  with  the  Italians. 

"The  transports  from  Australia  and  New  Zealand  have  been 
convoyed  safely  by  Japanese  warships.  Our  own  war  vessels  are 
free  for  convoying  our  troops  across  the  Atlantic  largely  because  of 
what  Japan  has  done  in  the  Pacific.  She  supplied  enormous  quanti- 
ties of  arms  and  ammunition  to  Russia.  She  lent  Russia  heavy  guns 
and  loaned  her  millions  of  dollars.  She  has  given  to  the  Allies 
quantities  of  copper.  She  has  sent  medical  units  to  England,  France, 
Russia,  Serbia  and  Rumania.  She  has  offset  the  German  intrigue 
in  India.  One  in  twenty-eight  of  the  people  of  Japan  belong  to 
the  Japanese  Red  Cross ;  one  in  four  of  the  Japanese  in  this  country 
are  in  the  American  Red  Cross.  Two  thousand  Japanese  are  fight- 
ing in  the  Canadian  army.  Japan  has  done  everything  she  has  been 
asked  to  do  or  permitted  to  do  in  this  war,  and  this  statement 
will  be  questioned  by  no  human  being  who  is  both  honest  and 
acquainted  with  the  actual  facts. 

"Yet,  at  this  very  time,  when  Japan's  sons  are  fighting  beside 
ours  in  the  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and 
the  North  Sea  and  in  the  air  over  the  western  front,  there  are 
blatant  Americans  who  have  served  Germany  against  America,  who 
have  played  the  German  game  to  the  limit,  by  striving  to  make 
trouble  between  Japan  and  the  United  States;  by  seeking  every 
way  to  rouse  suspicion  and  distrust  of  Japan  in  the  United  States; 
and  by  doing  all  that  malevolent  and  unscrupulous  baseness  can  do 
to  taunt  Japan  into  hostility  to  our  country.  There  are  in  this 
country  certain  demagogic  politicians,  certain  agitators  seeking 
notoriety,  and  certain  conscienceless  and  sensation-mongering  news- 
paper owners  and  writers  who  are  willing  to  make  money  or  obtain 
preferment  for  themselves  by  any  appeal  to  distrust  and  sus- 
picion, no  matter  what  infinite  harm  it  does  to  this  country.    These 


54  Japanese  in  America 

sordid  creatures  have  worked  hand  in  glove  with  the  scarcely  more 
sordid  creatures  who  are  paid  by  Germany  in  downright  cash  to 
advance  Germany's  aims,  whether  by  striving  to  provoke  an  ill-will 
that  might  eventually  produce  war  between  the  United  States  and 
Japan  or  in  any  other  fashion.  They  have  been  guilty  of  conduct 
so  shameful  that  it  cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned. 

"Japan  has  a  real  admiration  for  America,  dating  back  for  sixty 
years  to  the  time  of  Perry.  The  two  nations  have  been  in  relations 
of  close  friendship.  The  Japanese  have  patiently  borne  misrepre- 
sentation, insults  and  false  accusations  from  various  authors,  writers 
and  public  speakers  of  this  country.  They  are  a  proud  nation.  They 
have  suffered  under  this  vilification.  They  have  believed  that  our 
people  would  themselves  realize  the  injustice  of  these  attacks. 
Their  belief  is  justified.  Our  people  are  beginning  to  understand 
that  of  recent  years  the  most  flagrant  of  these  attacks  have  been 
made  by  German  agents  who  worked  diligently  and  secretly  with 
ample  government  money  to  create  distrust  between  the  two 
countries.  The  time  has  come  for  us  Americans  to  show  our  trust 
and  confidence  in  Japan  as  a  great,  loyal,  modern  people,  whose  seat 
at  the  table  of  the  family  of  nations  is  next  to  ours,  and  who  sit 
there  on  a  full  equality  with  all  other  civilized  peoples.  The  rights 
and  duties  of  the  United  States  and  Japan  toward  each  other  must 
be  treated  on  a  basis  of  exact  reciprocal  equality.  Each  must  have 
full  control  of  all  things  vitally  affecting  its  own  well-being;  each 
must  treat  the  other  with  frank  and  loyal  courtesy  and  consideration. 

"The  origin  and  persistence  of  German  propaganda  for  the 
purpose  of  embroiling  Japan  and  the  United  States  is  now  fairly 
well  recognized.  Yet  until  Viscount  Ishii  openly  and  publicly 
accused  Germany  of  being  the  agent  of  this  nefarious  work,  the 
people  of  our  country  knew  practically  nothing  about  it.  At  a 
reception  given  by  the  National  Press  Club  in  Washington  to 
Viscount  Ishii  as  the  head  of  the  commission  from  Japan,  September, 
1917,  he  made  an  address  which  was  for  the  most  part  devoted  to 
exposing  these  insidious  efforts  of  Germany.     He  said,  in  part: 

"  'For  more  than  ten  years  a  propaganda  has  been  carried  on  in 
this  country,  in  Japan,  and,  in  fact,  throughout  the  world,  for  the 
one  and  sole  purpose  of  keeping  nations  of  the  Far  East  and  Far 
West  as  far  apart  as  possible;  to  break  up  existing  treaties  and 
understandings ;  to  create  distrust,  suspicion  and  unkindly  feeling 
between  neighbors  in  the  Far  East  and  in  the  West,  and  all  in  order 
that  Germany  might  secure  advantages  in  the  confusion.     I  do  not 


Attitude  of  Representative  Americans       55 

think  that  you,  gentlemen,  in  your  busy  lives  here  during  the  last 
ten  years  have  given  more  than  passing  attention  to  developments  in 
the  Far  East.  The  well-equipped  agent  of  your  enemy  and  mine  has 
taken  advantage  of  your  preoccupation  or  of  your  kindly  credulity. 
For  many  years  his  work  was  easy.  The  world  was  flooded  with 
talks  of  Japan's  military  aspirations  and  Japan's  duplicity.  Have 
these  been  borne  out  by  history?  Even  now  the  German  publicity 
agent  whispers  first  in  your  ear  and  then  in  mine.  His  story  is 
specious,  and  is  told  in  dim  light  which  falls  upon  sympathetic 
pictures  cleverly  painted  by  himself  and  presented  to  you  and  to  me 
in  the  past.  To  the  accompaniment  of  appeals  to  the  human  heart  he 
tells  to  me  other  stories  of  your  duplicity  and  to  you  of  mine. 

"  Tor  twelve  years,  gentlemen,  up  to  the  present  time,  these 
agents  have  worked  among  us  and  elsewhere  persistently  and 
cleverly.  They  have  been  supplied  with  unlimited  resources.  No 
wonder  we  have  been  deceived.  A  short  time  ago  a  bad  blunder 
gave  us  a  clew.  The  Zimmerman  note  to  Mexico  involving  Japan 
was  a  blunder.  It  made  such  a  noise  that  we  were  disturbed  in  our 
slumbers,  and  so  were  you.  This  gave  a  check  for  a  time,  but  since, 
the  agents  have  been  hard  at  work.  They  were  at  work  yesterday, 
and  they  are  at  work  today.  Every  prejudice,  every  sympathy,  every 
available  argument  has  been  appealed  to  and  used  to  show  to  your 
people  and  to  ours  what  a  low,  cunning  enemy  we  have  each  in  the 
other,  and  how  much  dependent  we  are  upon  the  future  friendship, 
support  and  good-will  of  Germany.' 

"The  Zimmerman  note  was  an  official  invitation  from  Germany 
to  Japan  and  Mexico  to  join  in  dismembering  the  United  States; 
for  Germany  has  with  cynically  impartial  bad  faith  striven  to  draw 
her  own  profit  from  the  ill-will  she  has  endeavored  to  excite  in  each 
of  the  two  nations,  Japan  and  America.  Every  American  public 
man,  newspaper  editor,  speaker  or  writer  who  since  the  publication 
of  the  Zimmerman  note  has  striven  to  excite  America  against  Japan 
has  been  deliberately  playing  Germany's  game  against  this  country. 
Such  action  amounts  to  moral  treason  to  the  United  States. 

"If  anyone  thinks  this  too  strong  a  statement,  let  him  read  what 
Mr.  Gerard,  our  Ambassador  to  Germany  during  the  war  period, 
has  to  say: 

"  'All  during  the  winter  of  1914  in  Berlin,  Germans  from  the 
highest  down  tried  to  impress  me  with  the  great  danger  which  they 
said  threatened  America  from  Japan.  The  military  and  naval 
attaches  of  the  United   States  Embassy  and  I  were  told  that  the 


\ 


56  Japanese  in  America 

German  information  system  sent  news  that  Mexico  was  full  of 
Japanese  colonies  and  America  of  Japanese  spies.  Possibly  much 
of  the  prejudice  in  America  against  the  Japanese  was  cooked  up 
by  German  propagandists,  which  we  later  learned  to  know  so  well.' 

"Japan's  friendliness  and  good  faith  were  strikingly  shown  in 
the  early  days  of  the  war,  when  the  question  arose  whether,  in  case 
of  war  between  the  United  States  and  Japan,  Great  Britain  would 
be  obliged  to  assist  Japan.  This  was  excitedly  discussed  here  and 
in  England.  The  proposed  treaty  of  arbitration  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  came  up  about  this  time,  and  it  was 
found  that  such  a  treaty  was  precluded  by  the  terms  of  the  alliance 
between  Great  Britain  and  Japan.  It  was  at  Japan's  request  that 
the  terms  of  her  treaty  with  Great  Britain  be  revised,  so  as  to 
remove  the  obstacle  to  the  arbitration  treaty,  to  which  Great 
Britain  consented.    This  was  Japan's  contribution  to  universal  peace. 

"Regarding  this,  Viscount  Ishii  said  in  his  address  in  the 
National  Press  Club  in  Washington:  'Now  if  Japan  had  the 
remotest  intention  of  appealing  to  arms  against  America,  how 
could  she  thus  voluntarily  have  renounced  the  all-important  co- 
operation of  Great  Britain?  It  would  have  been  wildly  quixotic. 
Treaties  are  not  'scraps  of  paper'  to  Great  Britain.  Japan  knew 
she  could  rely  on  Great  Britain  religiously  to  carry  out  her  promise. 
It  was  my  good  fortune  to  be  in  the  foreign  office  at  Tokio  at  the 
time  of  the  revision  of  the  treaty  of  alliance  with  Great  Britain,  and 
modest  as  was  the  part  I  took  therein,  I  can  give  you  the  personal 
and  emphatic  assurance  that  there  was  at  that  time  no  one  in  the 
government  or  among  the  public  of  Japan  opposed  to  the  terms  of 
that  revision.  There  is,  one  may  surely  be  safe  in  saying,  only  one 
way  to  interpret  this  attitude  of  Japan.  It  is  the  most  signal  proof — 
if,  indeed,  any  proofs  are  needed — that  to  the  Japanese  Government 
and  nation  anything  like  armed  conflict  with  America  is  simply 
unthinkable.' 

"Japan,  alone  among  the  Allies,  has  borrowed  no  money  from 
the  United  States ;  and  she  has  lent  hundreds  of  millions  to  the 
other  allied  nations.  The  Japanese  have  made  a  record  in  war 
charities  during  the  last  four  years  which  is  of  really  extraordinary 
fineness  and  disinterestedness.  The  women  of  Japan  used  the  same 
methods  for  raising  money  to  be  sent  to  Belgium  and  Serbia  and 
elsewhere  that  our  own  women  did.  They  had  their  'Japan-Belgian 
Relief  Society,'  their  'Japan-Serbian  Relief  Society,'  etc.  They  sent 
$150,000   to   the   Italian   refugees   who   lost   their  homes   when   the 


Attitude  of  Representative  Americans       57 

Teutonic  armies  invaded  Italy.  Stimulated  by  these  smaller  but 
very  active  organizations,  a  movement  was  started  which  spread 
from  end  to  end  of  the  empire  and  then  across  to  Korea.  Its  title 
is  'The  Japanese  Association  for  Aiding  the  Sick  and  Wounded 
Soldiers  and  Others  Suffering  from  the  War  with  Allied  Countries.' 
Its  president  is  Prince  Iyesato  Tokugawa,  president  of  the  house 
of  peers.  The  vice-president  is  Baron  Shibusawa,  the  financier  so 
well  known  in  this  country.  The  fund  collected  amounted  to 
$1,000,000  and  was  distributed  as  follows : 

To  Great   Britain $184,000           Belgium  184,000 

France  184,000           Serbia 60,000 

Russia    184,000           Rumania   60,000 

Italy  184,000 

"Ordinarily,  funds  of  this  size  and  character  are  distributed  by 
a  committee,  but  this  association  adopted  a  less  expensive  and  much 
more  modern  method.  The  money  was  sent  to  the  Japanese  official 
representatives  in  the  various  countries.  A  pamphlet  was  published 
in  Japanese  and  in  English  under  the  title  'Japan  to  Her  Allies,' 
which  stated  the  purpose  of  the  association  and  also  included  articles 
written  by  leading  men  of  the  country,  in  which  they  set  forth  their 
sympathy  with  all  the  sufferers,  their  opinion  of  Germany's  responsi- 
bility for  the  war,  and  her  abominable  methods  of  conducting  it, 
and  their  belief  in  the  ultimate  victory  of  the  Allies.  It  is  a  remark- 
able publication;  nothing  quite  equal  to  it  has  originated  in  any  of 
the  Occidental  countries.  The  quality  of  the  pamphlet  is  shown  by 
the  following  quotation  from  the  dignified  and  impressive  statement 
of  Count  Terauchi,  the  prime  minister  and  official  spokesman  of  the 
Japanese  people: 

"  'Far  removed  as  the  empire  of  Japan  is  from  the  center  of 
action,  and  little  as  the  people  of  Japan  have  suffered  in  comparison 
with  their  European  allies,  Japan  and  her  people,  none  the  less, 
know  the  meaning  of  war,  and  are  able,  therefore,  to  appreciate  the 
sufferings  and  sacrifices  of  their  allies  as  their  own.  The  people  of 
Japan  feel  themselves  one  with  the  people  of  the  invaded  countries, 
just  as  the  people  of  the  allies  do.  They  are  one  in  sympathy  and 
in  the  fight  for  international  justice,  and  stand  ready  to  share  the 
hardships  of  the  struggle  to  the  fullest  extent.  ...  As  the  prime 
minister  of  Japan  it  is  my  privilege  and  pleasure  hereby  to  express 
the  sympathy  and  good-will  of  the  people  of  Japan  for  the  allied 
armies  and  peoples  in  this  day  of  trial.    .    .    .    Though  the  amount 


58  Japanese  in  America 

contributed  may  seem  no  more  than  a  mere  trifle  in  comparison  with 
the  need  of  the  suffering  nations,  the  heartfelt  sympathy  and  admira- 
tion of  a  whole  nation  go  with  it.  Those  who  receive  the  gift  from 
Japan  may  well  look  upon  it  as  the  widow's  mite  that  means  more 
than  all  the  offerings  of  the  rich.' 

"There  is  not  time  in  this  message  to  discuss  fully  our  proper 
relations  to  Japan ; — but  there  is  always  time  to  point  out  the 
elemental  fact  that  this  country  should  feel  for  Japan  a  peculiar 
admiration  and  respect,  and  that  one  of  the  cardinal  principles  of  our 
foreign  policy  should  be  to  secure  and  retain  her  friendship,  respect, 
and  good-will.  There  is  not  the  slightest  real  or  necessary  conflict 
of  interest  between  the  United  States  and  Japan  in  the  Pacific;  her 
interest  is  in  Asia,  ours  in  America ;  neither  has  any  desire  or  excuse 
for  acquiring  territory  in  the  other  continent.  Japan  is  playing  a 
great  part  in  the  civilized  world ;  a  good  understanding  between  her 
and  the  United  States  is  essential  to  international  progress,  and  it  is 
a  grave  offense  against  the  United  States  for  any  man  by  word  or 
deed  to  jeopardize  this  good  understanding. 

"The  case  has  been  put  in  a  nutshell  in  Viscount  Ishii's  eloquent 
and  appealing  address  at  Fair  Haven,  Mass.,  on  July  4,  which  he 
closed  with  these  words : 

"  'We  trust  you,  we  love  you,  and,  if  you  will  let  us,  we  will 
walk  at  your  side  in  loyal  good-fellowship  down  all  the  coming 
years.' 

"All  good  Americans  should  act  toward  Japan  in  precisely  the 
spirit  shown  toward  America  by  this  able  and  eloquent  Japanese 
statesman." 

Mr,  Elihu  Root. 

As  eminent  in  the  field  of  American  diplomacy  as  was 
Mr.  Roosevelt  in  politics,  Mr.  Elihu  Root  has  also  paid  a 
striking  tribute  not  only  to  the  Japanese  people  but  to 
that  government's  diplomacy. 

Mr.  Root  most  certainly  represents  the  best  type  of 
American  diplomat  and  is  considered  by  many  as  the 
United  States'  most  capable  Secretary  of  State. 

At  a  luncheon  given  in  New  York,  some  three  years 
ago,  he  paid  the  following  tribute  to  Japan  from  the 
diplomatic  viewpoint : 


Attitude  of  Representative  Americans       59 

"There  has  never  been  in  this  country,  so  far  as  my  observation 
and  reading  go,  any  more  dangerous  and  persistent  misrepresenta- 
tion regarding  the  relations,  the  purposes,  the  character  of  another 
country  with  which  we  have  relations  than  in  the  case  of  the  rela- 
tions between  the  United  States  and  Japan.  I  haven't  the  slightest 
doubt  that  the  misrepresentations  and  the  attempts  to  create  a 
feeling  among  the  people  who  have  it  all  in  their  hands  now,  the 
attempts  to  create  bad  feeling  between  the  United  States  and  Japan, 
have  been  very  largely  the  result  of  a  fixed  and  settled  purpose, 
and  that  purpose,  it  seems  to  me  growing  day  by  day  more  clear, 
was  the  purpose  that  formed  a  part  of  the  policy  of  the  great  ruling 
caste  of  Germany,  which  is  attempting  to  subjugate  the  world  today. 

"For  many  years  I  was  very  familiar  with  our  department  of 
foreign  affairs,  and  for  some  years  I  was  especially  concerned  in  its 
operation.  During  that  time  there  were  many  difficult  perplexing 
and  doubtful  questions  to  be  discussed  and  settled  between  the 
United  States  and  Japan.  During  that  time  the  thoughtless  or 
malicious  section  of  the  press  was  doing  its  worst.  During  that  time 
the  demagogue  seeking  cheap  reputation  by  stirring  up  the  passions 
of  the  people  to  whom  it  appealed  was  doing  his  worst.  There  were 
many  incidents  out  of  which  quarrels  and  conflicts  might  have 
arisen,  and  I  hope  you  will  remember  what  I  say.  I  say  that  during 
all  that  period,  there  never  was  a  moment  when  the  government  of 
Japan  was  not  frank,  sincere,  friendly,  and  most  solicitous  not  to 
enlarge,  but  to  minimize  and  do  away  with  all  causes  of  contro- 
versy. No  one  who  has  any  familiarity  at  all  with  life  can  be 
mistaken  in  a  negotiation  as  to  whether  the  one  with  whom  he  is 
negotiating  is  trying  to  be  frank  or  trying  to  bring  on  a  quarrel. 
That  is  a  fundamental  thing  that  you  canot  be  mistaken  about,  and 
there  was  never  a  more  consistent  and  noble  advocacy  of  peace,  of 
international  friendship  and  of  real  good  understanding  in  the 
diplomacy  of  this  world  than  was  exhibited  by  the  representatives 
of  Japan,  both  here  and  in  Japan,  during  all  these  years  in  their 
relations  to  the  United  States.  I  wish  for  no  better,  no  more  frank 
and  friendly  intercourse  than  that  by  which  Japan  in  those  years 
illustrated  the  best  qualities  of  the  new  diplomacy  as  between  rulers." 

The  Views  of  Dr.  Eliot. 

Dr.  Charles  W.  Eliot,  President  Emeritus  of  Harvard 
University,   and  the  Dean  of  all   academic  thought   in 


60  Japanese  in  America 

America,  is  also  a  sincere  admirer  of  Japanese  culture. 
Some  years  ago  Dr.  Eliot  visited  the  Orient  for  the 
express  purpose  of  forming  his  own  first-hand  conclu- 
sions as  to  the  future  relations  between  Japan  and  this 
country.  He  has  since  written  a  review  of  economic 
conditions  in  Japan  and  his  conclusions,  which  he  sum- 
marizes in  the  following: 

"The  inevitable  conclusion  from  all  observation  is  that  the 
United  States  and  Japan  should  always  be  good  friends,  and  neigh- 
bors and  cordial  allies." 

Tdr,  Frank  Vanderlifi* 

Mr.  Frank  Vanderlip,  former  President  of  the  National 
City  Bank  of  New  York,  and  a  world-wide  authority  on 
financing  and  economic  problems,  visited  Japan  in  1920 
in  an  unofficial  capacity  for  the  avowed  purpose  of  obtain- 
ing first-hand  information  on  the  so-called  Japanese 
question.  He  went  on  the  invitation  of  the  Japanese 
Welcome  Association,  and  in  June,  1920,  gave  his  con- 
clusions in  an  address  before  the  San  Francisco  Chamber 
of  Commerce. 

In  many  ways  Mr.  Vanderlip's  views  more  nearly 
represent  those  of  representative  Americans  than  any 
other  man  before  the  public  today.  He  is  a  trained 
observer  of  both  economic  and  social  conditions  and  a 
foremost  authority  on  financial  matters,  particularly  in  so 
far  as  they  affect  international  relations.  Since  retiring 
from  active  business  some  years  ago  he  has  devoted  the 
major  portion  of  his  time  to  the  study  of  international 
problems. 

"I  went  to  Japan  in  a  wholly  unofficial  capacity.  I  received  an 
invitation  from  an  organization  in  Japan  called  'The  Welcome 
Association.'  It  embraced  one  hundred  of  the  leading  citizens  of 
Japan— leading  in  business,  in  political  life,  in  the  intellectual  life  of 


Attitude  of  Representative  Americans       61 

the  nation.  They  invited  me  to  pick  out  a  party  of  ten  men,  to 
come  to  Japan  with  their  wives  and  have  a  frank,  unofficial  dis- 
cussion of  the  points  of  difference  between  the  two  nations.  It 
seemed  to  be  an  important  invitation, — a  promising  opportunity  to 
learn  something.  I  approached  it  wholly  as  a  student  of  the  Far 
Eastern  question,  and  a  student  in  the  primary  department,  because 
my  attention  has  been  rather  fixed  on  the  other  side  of  the  world, 
and  while  I  have  been  connected  with  some  large  business  enterprises 
in  the  Orient,  I  have  not  pretended  to  understand  very  much  of  the 
Oriental  question,  or  to  know  much  of  the  Japanese  problem. 

"We  met  in  Tokyo,  a  party  of  ten  Americans,  representing 
nothing  and  having  no  official  standing  whatever — representing  no 
Chamber  of  Commerce  or  similar  organizations — simply  nine  other 
men  I  picked  out  because  I  thought  they  were  open-minded,  able 
American  citizens.  And  we  met  with  a  similar  and  considerably 
larger  group  of  Japanese.  The  first  word  was,  'Put  diplomacy 
aside — let  us  discuss  with  frankness  and  candor  the  questions 
involved  between  these  two  nations.'  And  then  we  began  to  make 
a  statement  of  what  the  problems  were,  and,  as  we  were  the  guests 
and  were  not  experts — we  were  simply  students — we  said  to  these 
gentlemen,  'Name  the  Problems.'  The  first  problem  they  named 
was  one  that  was  deep  in  their  hearts.  And  they  named  it  with  the 
greatest  sincerity  and  the  greatest  gravity, — the  Japanese  question  in 
California.  Then  I  was  called  on  to  state  what  we  wanted  to  discuss, 
and  I  said  there  was  a  wider  question,  the  question  of  a  growing 
suspicion  in  the  minds  of  Americans,  not  at  all  confined  to  Cali- 
fornia, but  in  the  minds  of  all  Americans,  as  to  the  purposes  and 
aims  and  aspirations  of  the  Japanese  nation.  We  had  been  shocked 
by  what  had  occurred  in  Korea;  that  we  had  suspicions  as  to 
Shantung;  as  to  just  what  were  the  aims  of  Japan  in  that  province 
of  China,  and  we  looked  with  interest  on  the  situation  in  Mongolia 
and  Manchuria,  and  with  rather  intent  interest  on  the  position  of 
Japan  in  Siberia.  We  thought  all  of  those  questions  ought  to  be 
freely  and  frankly  discussed.  That  was  agreed  to.  Then  they  asked 
that  we  go  further;  that  we  discuss  the  idea  of  co-operation  of 
American  and  Japanese  capital  in  the  industrial  development  of 
China,  and  that  we  also  discuss  the  question  of  communication 
between  America  and  Japan — that  is,  of  better  cable  facilities.  There 
was  the  general  program. 

"We  spent  a  week,  meeting  every  morning  at  9  :00  and  proceeding 
in  parliamentary  order  with  Japanese  and  American  secretaries  and 


62  Japanese  in  America 

stenographers.  Baron  Shibusawa  was  made  the  honorary  chairman. 
Viscount  Kaneko  and  myself  were  the  presidents  of  the  conference. 
Now,  remember,  it  was  wholly  unofficial.  But  I  will  say  it  assumed 
something  more  than  just  an  unofficial  conference  of  citizens, 
because  the  government  at  once  began  to  show  a  decided  interest,  a 
sympathetic  interest.  The  government  officials  entertained  us.  The 
premier  gave  us  a  garden  party,  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs  a 
dinner.  We  met  all  the  government  officials,  and  then  it  went 
further.  The  elder  statesmen — there  are  only  two  left — Prince 
Yamagata  and  Marquis  Matsukata,  each  asked  for  an  interview. 
The  imperial  household  twice  entertained  us.  The  governors  of  the 
provinces,  the  municipalities  of  Tokyo,  Osaka,  Kyoto  and  Nara  all 
entertained  us  in  an  exceedingly  fine  and  dignified  way.  So  that  I 
feel  that  we  have  had,  although  a  quite  unofficial  visit,  a  very  unusual 
opportunity  to  gauge  the  sentiment  of  Japan — the  sentiments  of  the 
business  leaders,  men  high  in  politics,  even  those  far  back  of  the 
government,  but  powerful  in  their  influence,  and  we  had,  too,  a 
pretty  close  contact  in  some  instances  with  the  common  people 
themselves. 

"Let  me  make  a  very  hasty  resume  of  this  conference.  The 
California  question  is  not  a  question  of  immigration  to  California. 
That  was  one  of  the  first  things  I  learned.  It  is  a  question  of  the 
treatment  of  the  Japanese  in  California.  But,  even  deeper  than  that, 
much  deeper  than  that,  I  think,  is  the  method  of  approach  to  those 
questions.  The  seriousness  of  unlimited  Oriental  immigration  into 
our  social  structure  here  is  fully  appreciated  by  the  Japanese. 
Nowhere  did  I  find  a  demand  for  any  backward  step  in  our  attitude 
of  exclusion.  I  did  find  objections  to  treatment  that  differentiated 
against  the  Japanese  who  are  here — treatment  that  infers  that  they 
should  not  have  the  rights  and  privileges  of  other  aliens.  But, 
deeper  than  that,  as  I  said,  was  the  resentment — and  there  was  a 
grave  resentment — over  the  tone,  the  language,  the  nature  of  our 
approach  to  the  questions  and  also  the  fact  that  there  was  no 
approach  that  reached  to  the  Japanese  government ;  that  our  Federal 
authorities  have  seemed  to  ignore  the  whole  subject,  to  leave  it  in 
the  hands,  if  you  will  excuse  plain  speaking,  of  politicians,  of  news- 
papers, not  always  moved  by  the  highest  motives,  inviting  anybody 
with  deep  racial  prejudices  to  make  discourteous  remarks  in  regard 
to  the  situation. 

"When  I  went  to  Japan,  when  I  left  here,  I  think  I  was  a  little 
more  than  open-minded.     I  think  I  failed  to  see  as  I  see  today  the 


Attitude  of  Representative  Americans       63 

seriousness  of  any  opening  of  the  door  to  further  Japanese  immigra- 
tion. I  left  Japan  with  a  very  much  higher  opinion  of  the  Japanese 
than  I  had  when  I  landed  there,  but  with  a  clearer  opinion  in  my 
mind  that  we  ought  not  to  permit  further  immigration.  But  they 
take  the  attitude  that  our  stand  in  that  respect  is  all  right — they 
were  sorry,  particularly  sorry  in  so  far  as  it  placed  them  in  a 
position  of  inferiority,  but  they  said  that  they  had  met  that  with  a 
gentlemen's  agreement  and  that  they  had  scrupulously  kept  that 
gentlemen's  agreement.  Now,  I  know  in  your  mind  there  is  doubt 
that  they  have  scrupulously  kept  that  agreement.  I  find  in  some 
minds  there  is  a  doubt  that  we,  in  the  United  States,  have  scrupu- 
lously kept  it,  or  seen  to  it  that  it  is  kept  scrupulously.  I  am  told 
here  that,  perhaps,  any  criticism  might  first  fall  upon  our  own 
authorities,  if  there  has  been  any  violation  of  that  agreement. 

"They  said  then,  further,  that  they  saw  the  force  of  the  objection 
that  was  made  to  the  so-called  picture  brides,  and  that  they  had 
met  that  and  would  scrupulously  keep  that  agreement  as  soon  as  the 
few  who  still  had  been  contracted  for  had  arrived  here. 

"So  the  question  of  additional  immigration  or  the  question  of 
bringing  in  picture  brides  was  disposed  of  so  far  as  they  were 
concerned.  They  said  that  they  believed  they  could  dispose  of  every 
question,  if  they  were  approached  with  courtesy  and  sympathy  and 
some  understanding  of  their  own  situation.  That  is  where  this 
Japanese-California  question  rests  in  my  mind;  that  if  you  will 
approach  it  not  in  the  language  of  the  political  arena,  not  with 
emphasis  on  racial  prejudices,  but  if  you  approach  it  through  the 
Federal  Government,  which  is  the  only  approach  that  can  be  made 
to  the  Japanese  government,  that  everything  you  seek  to  accom- 
plish— every  reasonable  request  that  you  could  make  could  be 
adjusted  and  the  whole  situation  left  in  a  position  of  good  feeling. 
But  if  there  is  approach  at  all,  if  you  merely  make  it  a  football  of 
politics  and  prejudice,  you  have  got  a  larger  question  than  the 
California  question.  You  have  not  only  a  national  question  but  an 
international  question." 

The  Attitude  of  Representative  Calif ornians. 

Not  only  are  the  men  of  large  affairs  in  all  walks  of 
American  life  admirers  and  friends  of  the  Japanese,  but 
the  same  can  be  said  of  the  representative  Californians. 


. 


64  Japanese  in  America 

The  author  has  republished  and  reprinted  the  various 
addresses  and  papers  given  above  for  the  purpose  of 
definitely  showing  that  the  best  class  of  Americans  are 
not  in  sympathy  with  the  Anti-Japanese  propaganda,  and 
a  great  many  of  them, — genuine  admirers  of  the  Japanese. 
The  Japanese  problem  is  almost  entirely  a  made  one.  It 
has  been  created  by  a  certain  section  of  the  press  and  the 
political  element  in  California.  The  Californians  of 
larger  experience  are  free  from  this  prejudice  and  are 
opponents  of  this  propaganda.  Unfortunately  their  views 
are  not  as  easily  ascertained  and  are  given  scant  publicity. 

In  the  recent  campaign  held  in  November,  1920,  at 
which  California  reaffirmed  the  Anti-Alien  Land  Leasing 
Law,  and,  in  fact,  strengthened  the  previous  act,  this 
legislation  was  opposed  by  several  eminent  Californians, 
including  Dr.  Lyman  Wilbur,  President  of  Stanford 
University,  Mr.  Herbert  Hoover,  Secretary  of  Commerce, 
and  Dr.  Mary  Rinehart,  President  of  Mills  College. 

Responsible  opinion  in  California,  aside  from  political 
circles,  has  always  been  in  opposition  to  the  foolish 
restrictive  legislation  that  state  has  adopted.  The  only 
real  problem  that  exists  is  that  of  immigration.  It  is 
conceded  from  all  sources  that  the  United  States  cannot 
absorb  any  great  quantity  of  Asiatic  laborers,  whether 
Japanese  or  Chinese,  simply  because  of  the  difference  in 
the  standard  of  living.  It  is  also  conceded  that  those 
Orientals  who  are  here  and  have  gained  admission  by 
legal  methods  are  entitled  to  fair  treatment, — the  same 
treatment  that  is  accorded  any  other  National.  This 
feeling  is  not  confined  at  all  to  representative  Americans 
but  is  equally  shared  by  the  best  element  in  California. 

The  Japanese  problem  has  become  a  political  question 
in  California  simply  because  the  creation  of  racial 
prejudice  offers  means  of  advancement  to  a  certain  type 


Attitude  of  Representative  Americans       65 

of  politician.  The  better  element  deplores  this  fact  and 
realizes  that  the  solution  of  the  problem  existing  today 
must  be  reached  through  National  channels,  and  that 
nothing  can  be  accomplished  except  harm  by  the  re- 
strictive measures  that  have  been  adopted  in  the  past  and 
are  constantly  being  urged  in  California. 

The  San  Francisco  Chamber  of  Commerce, 

It  was  this  feeling  that  led  the  San  Francisco  Chamber 
of  Commerce,  in  the  face  of  the  bitterest  of  opposition,  to 
oppose  the  amendment  to  the  Alien  Land  Law  at  the 
election  of  1920. 

The  following  is  a  quotation  from  the  resolution  oppos- 
ing this  initiative  measure: 

"The  real  problem  disturbing  the  people  of  this  State  is  in  the 
last  analysis  one  of  immigration.  The  chamber  believes  that  further 
immigration  to  our  shores  of  those  whom  we  make  politically  ineli- 
gible to  citizenship  should  be  forbidden,  and  that  the  federal  govern- 
ment should,  either  by  treaty,  or  by  legislation,  but  preferably  by 
treaty,  accomplish  that  purpose.  State  legislation  cannot  deal  with 
this  ultimate  problem,  and  hasty  or  ineffective  action  by  the  State 
through  an  initiative  measure  that  is  after  all  futile,  and  likely  to 
stir  a  spirit  of  irritation  and  hostility,  can,  in  our  opinion,  only 
operate  as  an  embarrassment  and  may  even  prove  a  hindrance  to  the 
Federal  Government  in  the  attainment  of  a  final  solution  of  the 
question  of  immigration." 

This  particular  Chamber  of  Commerce  is  one  of  the 
largest  and  perhaps  the  best  in  the  United  States,  and  this 
was  a  particularly  fine  thing  for  it  to  do,  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  the  Anti-Japanese  forces  center  in  San  Francisco 
and  vicinity. 

Propaganda  Against  the  Japanese. 

The  immense  volume  of  propaganda  that  has  been 
directed  against  the  Japanese,  both  as  individuals  and  as 


66  Japanese  in  America 

a  Nation,  is  certainly  unequalled  in  American  history. 
Our  history  is  full  of  the  prejudices  that  have  existed  at 
one  time  or  another  against  other  Nations,  but  no  Nation 
has  ever  been  subjected  to  such  wholesale  misrepresenta- 
tion, abuse,  and  vilification  as  the  Japanese. 

As  California  is  the  center  of  the  Japanese  problem,  it 
has  until  the  last  two  years  also  been  the  headquarters  of 
this  propaganda.  California  was  the  first  State  to  be 
affected  to  any  great  extent  by  Oriental  labor.  Her  port 
of  San  Francisco  has  for  years  been  the  terminus  of  most 
of  the  Pacific  Steamship  Companies.  In  her  early  history, 
the  Chinese  furnished  a  large  part  of  manual  labor.  The 
California  employer  had  and  still  possesses  a  genuine 
affection  for  the  Chinese,  an  affection  that  he  in  no  way 
bears  to  the  succeeding  Asiatic, — the  Japanese.  This  is 
primarily  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Chinese  were  content 
in  most  instances  to  remain  laborers  and  have  always 
been  regarded  as  being  dependable,  whereas  the  Japanese 
are  very  much  more  ambitious  and  will  not  work  for  hire 
if  they  can  possibly  work  for  themselves. 

California,  affected  by  the  Oriental  labor  problem,  led 
in  the  fight  for  the  exclusion  of  the  Chinese.  However, 
it  was  not  the  employing  classes  which  sought  this  exclu- 
sion, but  rather  a  new  element  that  had  become  exceed- 
ingly important  in  the  political  life  of  the  State,  namely, 
the  Labor  Unions.  In  California,  labor  is  perhaps  as 
strongly,  or  more  strongly  organized,  than  in  any  other 
State  in  the  Union.  For  thirty  years  or  more  the  Labor 
Unions  have  exercised  an  exceedingly  strong  influence 
politically,  and  they  are  bitterly  opposed  to  the  Chinese 
and  played  a  large  part  in  securing  the  passage  of  the 
Exclusion  Act. 

Following  the  Chinese  came  the  Japanese  laborer.  A 
successful  fight  against  the  Chinese  had  been  made,  and 


Attitude  of  Representative  Americans       67 

it  was  only  natural  that  the  Japanese,  because  of  their 
ability  to  work  for  lower  wages  (this  was  the  leading 
objection  to  the  Chinese),  should  now  become  the  center 
of  labor  opposition. 

In  19 1 5,  the  Outlook  published  the  following  editorial 
in  reference  to  Anti- Japanese  articles : 

"The  Hearst  newspapers  which  make  it  their  business  to  stir  up 
bad  feeling  between  the  different  classes  of  society,  and  between  the 
nations,  have  been  indulging  in  one  of  their  most  elaborate  misrepre- 
sentations of  the  Japanese.  They  have  published  in  the  most  sensa- 
tional way,  and  with  blood-curdling  illustrations,  two  installments 
of  a  book  entitled  'The  War  Between  Japan  and  the  United  States.' 
The  alleged  translation  of  this  book  with  illustrations,  covers  two 
pages  of  some,  if  not  all,  the  Hearst  newspapers,  and  is  obviously 
intended  to  convince  the  readers  that  what  Bernhardi  did  in  the 
way  of  defining  German  plans  for  the  future,  the  Japanese  writer 
has  done  in  defining  the  Japanese  plans  for  the  future.  There  is  this 
great  difference,  however, — Bernhardi  is  a  well-known  German 
military  officer ;  the  author  of  this  book  is  obscure  and  the  Japanese 
say  an  unknown  person. 

"This  book  was  written  three  years  ago,  and  published  anony- 
mously. It  attracted  very  little  attention.  The  Japanese,  who  are 
familiar  with  conditions  at  home,  declare  that  it  made  no  impression 
and  was  promptly  forgotten.  In  the  screaming  headlines  of  the  two 
installments  in  the  Hearst  newspapers  it  is  characterized  as  'Japan's 
most  popular  book,  issued  by  its  powerful  and  influential  Defense 
Association.' 

"The  book  itself  is  preposterous,  and  the  translation  is  more 
preposterous  than  the  book.  Japanese  who  have  compared  the  two 
call  attention  to  wide  divergencies  between  them,  and  to  the  intro- 
duction of  entirely  new  matter  in  the  translation." 


The  Unthinking  Propaganda, 

Japanese  relations  have  frequently  been  prejudiced  by 
the  number  of  honest  but  unthinking  people  who  believe 
most  of  what  they  read.  It  is  entirely  natural  that  a  group 
of  people  should  rely  upon  the  propaganda  publications  for 


68  Japanese  in  America 

their  information.  This  group  unquestionably  are  per- 
fectly honest  in  their  opinions,  and  they  somewhat  impede 
the  final  solution  of  the  difficulties  that  have  existed 
between  the  two  countries. 

Then  there  is  an  element  who  cannot  understand  the 
Japanese  viewpoint.  There  perhaps  are  as  many  Japanese 
who  do  not  understand  the  American  viewpoint.  As  a 
consequence,  difficulties  are  bound  to  arise. 

Present  Diplomatic  Questions, 

Apart  from  the  various  people  who  have  their  own 
particular  welfare  to  serve,  as  these  propagandists  and  the 
California  politicians,  there  is  no  feeling  against  either 
Japan  or  the  Japanese  people,  and  no  diplomatic  question 
that  cannot  be  solved  by  the  National  Government. 

The  enemies  of  the  Japanese  claim  that  the  Gentlemen's 
Agreement  is  constantly  being  violated  and  that  vast 
numbers  of  Japanese  are  coming  into  this  country.  This 
the  Japanese  declare  to  be  untrue,  and  in  all  probability  it 
is  untrue.  Certainly  they  have  never  proved  this 
contention  and  the  American  Government  has  never 
yet  questioned  Japanese  faith  in  keeping  this  agreement. 
This  agreement  limiting  immigration  has  been  strength- 
ened voluntarily  by  the  Japanese  themselves  in  the  elim- 
ination of  the  so-called  "picture  brides,"  and  as  it  stands, 
it  is  probably  adequate  to  meet  every  requirement. 

The  Oriental  Viewpoint* 

Competent  observers  and  students  contend  that  the 
Japanese  are  quite  willing  to  limit  immigration.  They 
sympathize  with  the  American  stand  and  fully  appreciate 
the  fact  that  America  cannot  absorb  any  great  number  of 
Japanese.     On  the  contrary,  they  cannot  understand  why 


Attitude  of  Representative  Americans       69 

those  Japanese  that  have  been  permitted  to  enter  this 
country  by  the  National  Government  should  not  be 
accorded  the  privileges  extended  to  any  other  National. 
The  Japanese  cannot  and  do  not  believe,  that  they  are 
an  inferior  people,  and  they  bitterly  resent  any  attempt  to 
classify  them  as  such.  They  have  agreed  to  limit  immi- 
gration; they  have  voluntarily  strengthened  this  agree- 
ment, and  they  do  not  understand  why  any  other  problem 
that  arises  is  not  approached  through  the  proper  channel, 
— the  American  State  Department. 

The  American  Viewpoint. 

The  viewpoint  of  all  American  diplomats  has  been  one ' 
of  conciliation.  Mr.  Elihu  Root,  the  Dean  of  American 
diplomats,  has  expressed  his  faith  in  Japanese  diplomacy. 
The  big  question  was  that  of  immigration.  The  American 
Government  could  not  permit  wholesale  immigration 
because  of  the  difference  in  the  standard  of  living.  This, 
the  Gentlemen's  Agreement  accomplished,  and  there 
have  been  no  difficulties  between  the  two  nations  that  have 
not  promptly  been  settled.  The  American  Govern- 
ment has  not  interfered  in  California's  treatment  of  the 
Japanese  except  in  the  instance  of  the  San  Francisco 
School  Episode,  when  Mr.  Roosevelt  insisted  upon  the 
fulfillment  of  treaty  obligations. 

Mr.  Lansing,  former  Secretary  of  State,  attributed,  in  a 
public  utterance,  the  suspicion  between  the  two  countries 
to  a  prejudiced  and  hostile  American  press  campaign.  As 
the  question  of  immigration  has  been  settled  in  a  manner 
satisfactory  to  both  nations,  there  is  no  problem  existing 
between  the  two  countries  today,  except  the  unwarranted 
prejudice  that  has  been  created  in  some  circles  by  self- 
seeking  propagandists. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
The  Japanese  Association  of  America. 

T)ERHAPS  no  one  activity  of  the  Japanese  has  been 
*  more  constantly  the  target  for  unfriendly  propaganda 
than  that  of  the  Japanese  Association  of  America. 

Any  review  of  the  work  of  this  Association  will  show 
that  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  organization  is  exactly  what 
the  name  implies, — simply  an  Association  of  American 
Japanese,  organized  primarily  for  the  social  benefits  it 
confers,  but  finding  that  its  field  of  usefulness  could  be 
enlarged,  it  has  grown  into  an  active  society  for  the 
betterment  of  the  condition  of  its  members. 

Its  Organization* 

The  Association  was  incorporated  under  the  California 
State  Law  in  August,  1900,  and  became  the  central 
organization  for  40  affiliated  associations,  covering  the 
northern  part  of  the  State,  and  the  States  of  Nevada, 
Utah  and  Colorado,  with  a  total  membership  of  16,000. 
While  its  original  purpose  was  entirely  social,  the  execu- 
tives of  the  Association  soon  found  that  it  could  be  of 
the  utmost  value  in  disseminating  information  as  to 
American  customs,  and  in  generally  assisting  the  incoming 
Japanese  to  place  themselves.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
the  primary  motive  actuating  the  Japanese  immigrant  is 
his  own  economic  betterment, — exactly  the  same  motive 
which  actuates  99%  of  our  immigration. 

Most  frequently  the  immigrant  has  no  knowledge  of 
English,  an  exceedingly  hazy  idea  of  the  customs  and 
laws  of  his  new  home,  and  as  the  Japanese  are  by  tem- 

[701 


The  Japanese  Association  of  America       71 

perament  and  training  scrupulous  in  observing  the  social 
customs,  what  more  natural  than  that  they  should  de- 
pend upon  the  advice  of  some  organization  composed 
of  their  own  people  who  had  preceded  them?  The 
Japanese  Association  has  done  a  very  great  deal  for  the 
immigrant,  not  only  in  assisting  him  to  find  himself 
economically,  but  in  efforts  to  acquaint  him  with  the 
customs  and  laws  of  the  section  he  settles  in.  More  re- 
cently, the  officials  of  the  Association  have  realized  that 
if  the  propaganda  which  has  been  conducted  against 
them  shall  be  rendered  harmless,  they  must  find  some 
way  of  teaching  their  members  English  and  of  ultimately 
Americanizing  them.  The  Association  therefore  promptly 
embarked  upon  this  new  activity, — that  of  Americanizing 
their  membership. 

Its  organizers  and  officers  show  a  typically  American 
concept  of  this  form  of  an  Association.  It  has  a  dele- 
gate convention  consisting  of  a  certain  specified  number 
of  representatives  of  the  different  affiliated  Associations. 
This  Convention  meets  once  a  year,  in  January,  and  dis- 
cusses and  adopts  a  policy  and  budget  for  the  ensuing 
year.  A  Board  of  Directors  is  elected  from  the  affiliated 
Associations,  and  they  supervise  the  work,  subject  to  the 
Committee  on  Management,  composed  of  7  members, 
which  is  selected  by  this  Convention.  The  President 
assumes  general  supervision,  but  is  limited  in  action  by 
the  By-Laws,  and  the  agreement  of  the  Association. 
The  General  Secretary,  the  Assistants,  and  the  executive 
councils  are  selected  by  the  Committee  on  Management, 
which  is  also  responsible  for  the  general  business  of  the 
Association.  When  the  necessity  of  incorporating  a  new 
Association  which  desires  to  be  affiliated  with  the  central 
organization    arises,    an    application    showing    detailed 


72  Japanese  in  America 

reasons  is  submitted,  and  permission  obtained  from  the 
Central  Association.  This  permission  is  only  issued 
upon  recognition  of  the  necessity  by  the  Board  of  Direc- 
tors. It  is  perfectly  apparent  that  this  Society  does  not 
differ  in  any  manner  from  literally  thousands  of  other 
fraternal,  religious  and  social  organizations  with  mem- 
bership, and  in  fact  the  Association  does  show  in  its 
officers  and  directors,  that  it  is  on  the  order  of  any 
American  corporation. 

Its  Freedom  from  Governmental  Influence, 

Frequently  the  statement  has  been  made  by  un- 
friendly newspapers  that  this  Association  was  directly 
responsible  to  the  Imperial  Japanese  Government,  and 
received  financial  support  from  it.  This  has  beefi  as  fre- 
quently denied  by  the  executives  of  the  Association 
itself,  and  so  far  there  has  never  been  a  scintilla  of  proof 
that  the  newspaper  statements  were  true.  The  revenues 
of  the  Association  are  raised  through  a  15%  assessment 
on  the  membership  fees  collected  by  the  local  organiza- 
tions. Fees  are  also  charged  for  the  making  out  of  cer- 
tain certificates  and  for  legal  advice  and  immigration 
aids.  From  this  revenue  the  entire  appropriations  for 
the  various  activities  are  made.  The  expense  of  con- 
ducting the  numerous  departments  and  activities  of  the 
Association  is,  in  fact,  a  very  limited  one,  and  the 
revenue  derived  from  the  membership  has,  in  some  in- 
stances, not  been  of  sufficient  size  to  carry  on  all  of  its 
work.  Therefore  the  Association  has  found  itself  in  the 
position  where  it  has  had  to  appeal  for  voluntary  contri- 
butions to  the  people  at  large.  Certainly  this  does  not 
indicate  that  it  is  receiving  or  has  received  any  aid  from 
the  Japanese  Government.  This  institution  is  in  fact  a 
self-perpetuating,    independent    body    with    no    relation 


The  Japanese  Association  of  America       73 

whatever  with  the  Imperial  Government  of  Japan,  just 
as  a  thousand  other  organizations  of  different  nationals 
living  here. 

Its  Purpose. 

The  purpose  of  this  society  is  exceedingly  well  stated 
in  the  original  agreement  between  the  affiliated  bodies, 
which  states  that: 

"The  purpose  of  this  Association  shall  be  to  elevate  the  character 
of  every  Japanese  resident  in  America;  to  promote  his  or  her  hap- 
piness and  prosperity  and  to  cultivate  a  better  understanding  be- 
tween our  people  and  the  American  people." 

In  carrying  out  this  purpose,  the  Association  has 
assumed  a  guiding  hand  over  the  Japanese  immigrant. 
The  Society  has  constantly  at  the  Immigration  Office  at 
all  ports  where  Japanese  immigrants  are  received,  a  sec- 
retary who  assists  the  newcomer  through  the  formalities 
of  landing,  and  also  sees  that  he  has  a  fair  conception  of 
what  is  expected  of  him  as  a  resident  in  this  country. 
This  is  done  by  literature  and  represents  an  extensive 
part  of  the  Association's  work. 

Some  time  ago,  Congressman  Albert  Johnson,  Chair- 
man of  the  House  Committee  on  Immigration  and  Natur- 
alization, is  quoted  as  having  said  in  Seattle: 

"This  Committee  has  been  unable  to  find  a  Secretary  of  any  of 
the  Japanese  Associations,  local  or  otherwise,  who  kept  a  register 
of  how  the  Japanese  applying  for  membership  entered  the  United 
States." 

The  Congressman's -statement  is  quite  true.  There  is 
nothing  incumbent  upon  the  Japanese  Association  to  de- 
termine whether  or  not  an  incoming  immigrant  is  proper 
to  admit.  It  certainly  is  not  incumbent  upon  them  to 
ascertain  whether  or  not  their  members  were  properly 
admitted  into  the  United  States,  any  more  than  upon 


X 


74  Japanese  in  America 

the  French,  Italian,  or  any  other  social  organization. 
That  is  a  function  exclusively  for  our  own  immigration 
officials,  and  a  United  States  Government  duty  only,  and 
certainly  not  one  for  any  civilian  organization  to  under- 
take. 

It  has  never  been  proved  or  contended  that  the 
Japanese  Association  of  America  has  not  been  quite 
willing  to  furnish  the  immigration  officials  with  any  in- 
formation which  they  might  have  as  to  the  character, 
antecedents  and  mode  of  admittance  of  any  of  their 
members.  The  Society  has,  since  the  California  question 
has  come  up,  taken  steps  to  determine  the  character  and 
antecedents  of  any  incoming  immigrant  who  applies  for 
admittance  under  the  present  laws.  It  will  further  see 
to  his  or  her  proper  admittance. 

Its  Accomplishments, 

In  furtherance  of  its  plan  of  Americanization,  the 
Association  is  utilizing  every  possible  opportunity,- — as 
for  example:  It  is  now  publishing  a  pamphlet  which  is 
distributed  to  women  aboard  incoming  steamers,  de- 
scribing and  explaining  the  American  customs  and  man- 
ners, mode  of  living  and  dress,  and  etiquette,  both  private 
and  public.  This  is  done  to  facilitate  the  immigrant's  un- 
derstanding and  to  equip  her  for  some  knowledge  of 
what  is  expected  of  her  here. 

The  Association  for  years  has  employed  an  advisory 
attorney,  and  a  special  secretary  to  take  charge  of  the 
legal  work  of  its  members.  It  is  the  duty  of  this  de- 
partment to  see  that  every  important  American  law,  such 
as  conscription,  revenue  legislation,  land  laws,  corpora- 
tion laws,  and  any  legal  measure  that  may  have  a  direct 
bearing  upon  the  Japanese  here  is  promptly  translated 
and  a  copy  of  the  translation  sent  to  their  membership. 


The  Japanese  Association  of  America       75 

This  aspect  of  the  work  is  to  prevent  the  Japanese  violat- 
ing a  law  they  do  not  understand.  It  is  done  by  no  other 
association  of  aliens,  and  at  least  shows  a  very  decided 
intention  on  the  part  of  this  organization  to  see  that  its 
members  understand  the  law.  This  particular  depart- 
ment extends  advice  to  its  members  for  the  purpose  of 
settling  any  legal  difficulty  that  its  members  may  get  into, 
either  with  another  member,  or  with  American  citizens. 

The  association  has  been  particularly  active  in  its 
efforts  toward  education.  Its  executives  realized  early 
that  90%  of  the  difficulty  which  an  immigrant  might 
get  into  would  arise  from  his  failure  to  understand 
elementary  facts  of  American  civilization.  It  has,  there- 
fore, striven  to  teach  them  that  assimilation  is  the  first 
and  foremost  step  in  their  success,  and  to  convince  them 
that  by  contributing  to  the  national  interests  they  can 
attain  their  own  economic  development. 

This  organization  is  constantly  conducting  women's 
meetings  where  both  American  and  Japanese  speakers 
impart  advice  as  to  the  Japanese  woman's  social  position 
here  and  the  further  education  of  their  children.  They 
have  published  a  number  of  pamphlets  with  reference 
to  birth  and  care  of  children,  and  have  translated  a  num- 
ber of  American  books  on  these  subjects,  particularly  that 
on  Sanitation  by  the  State  Board  of  Health,  "Care  of 
the  Children,"  and  a  "Prenatal  Guide."  Some  $2,000  a 
year  is  set  aside  for  this  work. 

The  Americanization  project  received  particular  atten- 
tion and  a  new  impetus  when  the  American  Government 
laid  down  the  general  plan  of  the  so-called  "Americaniza- 
tion Campaign."  The  Association  immediately  joined 
this  movement  and  made  of  it  a  fundamental  of  their 
work, — in  co-operation  with  the  associations  of  Los 
Angeles,  Portland  and  Seattle.  Every  effort  is  made  to 
encourage   its   membership   to   learn    English,   and   text 


76  Japanese  in  America 

books  are  furnished  for  this  particular  work.  Various 
publications  have  been  translated  to  impart  a  knowledge 
of  American  life  to  the  Japanese  here,  so  that  they  may 
understand  Americanism  in  the  full  meaning  of  that 
term.  The  Association  employed  at  this  time  a  man 
educated  in  America,  who  canvassed  their  entire  mem- 
bership. It  was  his  duty  to  see  particularly  that  the 
older  settlers  were  provided  with  Japanese-English  text 
books,  and  that  teachers  were  supplied  to  classes  which 
he  organized  for  both  women  and  children.  Lectures 
were  also  given  by  men  and  women  of  prominence. 
They  have  added  to  their  various  lecture  classes,  until 
they  now  give  lectures  at  stated  times  on  American 
history  and  Civics,  Economics,  Industry,  Religion,  Edu- 
cation, Social  Life  and  Good  Housekeeping,  Health  and 
Hygiene,  and  the  like.  The  Japanese  schools,  churches, 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  Young  Women's 
Christian  Association,  newspapers  and  magazines,  were 
asked  to  co-operate  in  this  campaign,  and  most  of  them 
responded  eagerly.  The  Association  spends  something 
like  $5,000  a  year  on  this  particular  phase  of  the  work. 

Realizing  the  necessity  for  statistics,  the  Association 
has  developed  a  Statistical  Bureau,  which  has  been  found 
to  be  particularly  reliable,  with  reference  to  the  facts 
regarding  population  and  industrial  activity  of  the 
Japanese  residing  within  its  jurisdiction.  The  results  of 
these  investigations  are  published  yearly  and  are  pre- 
sented to  the  American  people  as  actual  facts  for  their 
fair  and  impartial  judgment  of  the  Japanese  question. 
Needless  to  say,  these  statistics  are  not  published  by  the 
large  number  of  prejudiced  American  newspapers. 

During  the  war  the  Association  carried  on  an  active 
campaign  to  secure  Liberty  Bond  subscriptions  and  sub- 
scriptions to  the  Red  Cross  from  its  members.  With  the 
return  of  peace  this  energy  was  directed  into  the  channel 


The  Japanese  Association  of  America       77 

of  finding  a  means  for  the  better  understanding  of  ques- 
tions arising  between  the  Japanese  and  American  people. 
They  have  placed  themselves  on  record,  before  there 
was  any  particular  agitation,  against  the  practice  of 
picture  marriages,  not  because  they  believe  the  picture 
marriage  custom  is  an  immoral  one,  but  simply  because 
they  do  not  believe  it  will  ever  be  fully  understood  by 
the  average  American,  and  therefore  would  always  be  a 
subject  that  would  produce  inharmony. 

The  Association  also  furnishes  advice  and  information 
to  American  tourists  to  Japan  and  has  been  a  great  help 
to  travelers  in  that  country. 

Another  very  important  work  of  the  organization  is 
that  of  issuing  certificates  to  the  resident  Japanese  who 
wishes  to  apply  to  the  Japanese  Government  for  a  pass- 
port for  a  member  of  his  family, — "the  parent,  wife  or 
minor," — to  come  to  this  country.  He  is  required  to 
obtain  from  the  Japanese  Consul  General  in  San  Fran- 
cisco a  certificate  as  to  character  and  occupation.  This 
certificate  is  issued  only  after  careful  inquiry  into  the 
applicant's  character,  his  business  associations,  and  his 
personal  conduct  since  his  arrival  in  America.  The  Asso- 
ciation, under  the  official  recognition  of  the  Consul 
General,  assumes  the  responsibility  for  making  this  in- 
vestigation. 

It  is  apparent  in  reviewing  the  activities  of  the  Asso- 
ciation, that  they  do  not  differ  from  those  of  many  other 
organizations,  such  as  the  various  Polish  societies,  French 
societies,  Italian  societies,  etc.,  except  that  the  Japanese 
Association  is  decidedly  more  energetic  in  keeping  track 
of  its  membership  and  in  directing  their  activities. 


CHAPTER  V. 
Japanese  Population  in  California. 

pERHAPS  no  one  element  of  the  Japanese  question 
*  has  been  more  liberally  discussed  than  that  of  the 
Japanese  population  in  California.  In  fact,  if  the  alarmist 
press  and  those  gentlemen  who  are  using  this  problem 
as  a  means  of  fulfilling  their  political  ambitions  could  be 
believed,  the  Japanese  would  already  be  the  dominant 
element  in  that  State. 

The  situation  has  been  variously  described  as  "dan- 
gerously alarming"  and  a  "menace  to  the  dominance  of 
the  white  element."  As  though  the  ratio  of  87,279 
Japanese  to  the  total  population  of  3,426,861  could  be 
dangerously  alarming! 

Class  of  Immigrants, 

No  less  a  subject  of  discussion  is  the  class  of  immi- 
grants received  from  Japan.  Under  the  so-called 
""Gentlemen's  Agreement,"  which  is  the  basis  of  the  un- 
written treaty  obligations  between  the  two  countries, 
Japanese  laborers  are  excluded  from  passport  privileges. 
It  was  the  understanding  between  the  two  countries  at 
the  time  this  agreement  was  consummated,  that  the 
Japanese  Government  would  prohibit  for  all  time  the 
issuance  of  passports  to  their  laborers,  except  with  certain 
restrictions.  It  is  this  particular  phase  of  the  problem 
which  is  so  much  in  dispute.  The  Anti- Japanese  press 
has  frequently  made  the  charge  that  from  10,000  to 
12,000  Japanese  laborers  are  coming  into  the  United 
States  yearly,  both  through  the  issuance  of  passports  in 

[78 


Japanese  Population  in  California  79 

violation  of  this  agreement,  and  illegally  by  coming  over 
the  Mexican  border.  A  careful  and  impartial  analysis,  of 
course,  does  not  substantiate  this  claim. 

Under  the  Gentlemen's  Agreement,  the  only  Japanese 
admitted  at  all  are :  First,  former  residents  of  the  United 
States;  second,  parents,  wives  and  children  of  residents; 
and  third,  settled  agriculturists.  This  is,  of  course,  in 
addition  to  the  non-laboring  Japanese,  such  as  diplomats, 
merchants,  financiers  and  students,  who  are  free  to  come 
without  restriction. 

It  is  perfectly  simple  for  the  Anti- Japanese  Press  to 
make  this  charge,  but  authentic  figures  of  the  Commis- 
sioner General  of  Immigration  give  the  total  arrivals  as 
11,404  in  1919,  and  departures  as  8,328,  so  that  the  net 
gain  would  be  slightly  over  3,000  in  actual  immigration 
from  Japan  to  the  United  States  in  that  year.  Conse- 
quently, if  the  entire  3,000  were  Japanese  laborers  this 
contention  would  still  fall  short  by  7,000  of  the  number 
claimed. 

The  following  table  gives  the  total  arrivals  and  de- 
partures to  and  from  the  Continental  United  States 
during  the  past  twelve  years,  and  is  absolutely  accurate: 

Arri-  Depar- 

Year  vals  tures  Year 

1908  9,544  4,796  1914  

1909  2,432  5,004  1915  

1910  2,598  5,024  1916  

1911  4,285  5,869  1917  

1912  5,358  5,437  1918  11,143 

1913  6,771  5,647  1919  11,404 

(Note — These  are  official  figures  of  the  Commissioner  General 

of  Immigration). 

As  Japanese  laborers  must  come  under  these  classi- 
fications, and  as  those  included  in  the  first  class  are  com- 
pelled to  return  to  America  within  18  months  following 
their  departure,  there  could  be  but  a  slight  danger  under 


Arri- 

Depar- 

vals 

tures 

8,462 

6,300 

9,029 

5,967 

9,100 

6,922 

9,150 

6,581 

1,143 

7,691 

1,404 

8,328 

0 


80  Japanese  in  America 

this  classification.  The  number  coming  under  Class  Two 
would  also  be  very  limited,  and  it  is  an  open  question  as 
to  whether  those  Japanese  who  have  settled  in  America 
as  agriculturists  could  still  be  classified  as  laborers. 

The  Japanese  Government,  of  course,  under  the  Gen- 
tlemen's Agreement,  does  not  issue  passports  to  laborers 
other  than  those  coming  under  these  restrictions.  In 
some  instances,  however,  there  has  been  a  conflict  of 
opinion  as  to  the  occupation  of  the  immigrant.  The 
Japanese  Government  may,  for  instance,  issue  a  passport 
to  a  Japanese  immigrant  whom  it  believes  to  be  a  non- 
laborer.  The  American  Immigration  Officials  may  re- 
gard him  as  a  laborer.  This  is  quite  conceivable  because 
of  the  difference  in  classifying  occupations  in  the  two 
countries,  but  in  all  these  instances  the  United  States 
Immigration  Officials'  ruling  would  prevail  and  this 
immigrant  would  be  excluded. 

The  following  figures  show  the  number  of  arrivals 
classified  as  laborers  and  non-laborers: 


Non- 

Non- 

Year 

Laborers 

Laborers 

Year 

Laborers 

Laborers 

1909     

...       675 

1,757 

1915     

...    2,214 

6,815 

1910    

...       589 

1,909 

1916     

, . . .    2,958 

6,142 

1911    

...       726 

3,556 

1917    

...    2,838 

6,321 

1912    

...       894 

4,464 

1918    

...     2,604 

8,539 

1913    

...     1,331 

5,400 

1919    

...     2,278 

9,126 

1914    

. . .     1,762 

6,700 

(Note— These  are  official  figures  of  the  Commissioner  General  of 
Immigration). 

Unfortunately,  the  classification  as  to  departures  can- 
not be  given  because  statistics  are  not  recorded  as  to  the 
occupations  of  those  departing.  It  can  be  presumed, 
however,  that  with  a  large  number  of  departures  many 
would  be  laborers  by  occupation. 

Another  element  of  the  subject  which  has  furnished 
literally  reams  of  copy  for  the  Anti- Japanese  press  is  that 


Japanese  Population  in  California  81 

of  the  so-called  "Picture  Brides," — Japanese  wives  arriv- 
ing in  this  country.  So  varied  have  been  the  estimates 
made  that  no  exact  figure  has  ever  been  agreed  upon  by 
the  Anti-Japanese  element,  but  the  following  figures  are 
compiled  from  the  records  of  the  San  Francisco  Immigra- 
tion Office  and  show  that  a  total  of  5,273  Japanese 
women  have  been  admitted  through  this  port  in  the  last 
eight  years.    The  table  is  given  by  years : 

Year  Number       Year Number 

1912  879  1917  504 

1913  625  1918  520 

1914  763   1919  668 


1915 823      .  

1916    486         Total 5,273 

The  subject  of  so-called  "picture  brides"  is  unquestion- 
ably a  delicate  one  and  one  that  is  exceedingly  hard  to 
comprehend  by  the  average  American.  The  question, 
however,  simply  resolves  itself  into  one  of  a  difference  in 
social  customs.  In  Japan,  like  many  other  countries,  the 
question  of  marriage  is  left  largely  to  the  parents.  The 
wishes  of  the  individuals  are  entirely  ignored  on  the 
theory  that  the  mature  experience  of  the  parents  better 
fits  them  to  choose  the  wife  or  husband  for  their  children. 
The  Japanese  are  exceedingly  economical,  being  made  so 
by  the  limited  economic  opportunities  open  to  them,  so  it 
seems  entirely  reasonable  to  the  young  Japanese  living  in 
America,  who  desires  to  marry,  that  instead  of  going  to 
the  expense  of  returning  to  his  home,  he  should  write  to 
his  parents  and  ask  that  a  suitable  girl  be  selected  to  be- 
come his  bride.  The  parents,  following  an  established 
custom,  fix  upon  an  eligible  person.  They  then  intimate 
to  the  girl's  parents  that  they  are  desirous  of  securing 
her  marriage  to  their  son  in  America.  The  parents  on 
each  side  spare  no  pains  in  inquiring  into  the  character, 
social  standing,  family  relations,  health  and  education  of 


82  Japanese  in  America 

the  young  people.  If  this  investigation  is  satisfactory 
the  young  woman  departs  eventually  for  San  Francisco 
and  her  new  home. 

From  the  American  viewpoint  the  picture  bride  is  ex- 
ceedingly hard  to  understand,  but  it  must  be  kept  in  mind 
that  the  older  nations  generally  do  not  view  marriage 
from  a  romantic  angle,  but  are  exceedingly  practical.  Be- 
cause of  the  agitation  and  misunderstanding  that  has 
arisen  over  the  matter  of  picture  brides,  the  Japanese 
Government  has  voluntarily  agreed  to  restrict  further 
immigration  of  this  class  except  in  a  few  isolated  cases. 
Therefore,  in  the  very  near  future  no  more  picture  brides 
will  be  admitted,  and  this  class  of  immigration  stopped 
entirely. 

The  one  important  factor  that  the  Anti-Japanese  press 
does  not  take  into  consideration  is  the  number  of  de- 
partures yearly.  They  are  very  quick  to  believe  their 
own  version  of  the  number  arriving,  but  departures  are 
never  given.  There  has  been  a  decided  increase  in  the 
number  of  arrivals  beginning  in  19 14,  but  this  has  been 
largely  offset  by  the  number  of  departures.  This  was  due 
entirely  to  the  war.  Japanese  officials  and  business  men, 
going  to  Europe  on  war  business — and  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  Japan  was  one  of  our  allies — have  passed 
through  the  United  States  and  are  therefore  counted  as 
arrivals.  The  figures  for  arrivals  of  this  class  must  be 
twice  the  actual  number,  owing  to  the  fact  that  they  are 
counted  at  Pacific  ports  upon  arrival  from  Japan,  and 
again  counted  upon  their  return  from  Europe  at  Atlantic 
ports.  They  are,  however,  listed  only  once  as  departures 
at  the  Pacific  ports  on  the  way  home. 

Another  factor  which  has  increased  this  immigration 
has  been  the  increased  number  of  Japanese  students  who 
would  have  normally  gone  to  European  universities,  but 
because  of  the  war  came  to  the  United  States.     There 


Japanese  Population  in  California  83 

was  also  an  enormous  increase  of  American-Japanese 
trade  during  this  period,  and  this  caused  many  Japanese 
firms  to  send  agents  to  America  to  establish  branch 
offices  and  agencies  in  the  various  American  cities. 

A  thorough  investigation  and  a  review  of  the  actual 
statistics  does  not  show  any  alarming  immigration  from 
Japan  to  this  country,  and  it  certainly  does  not  show  any 
willful  or  wholesale  violation  of  the  "Gentlemen's  Agree- 
ment" in  the  admittance  of  laborers. 

A  summary  of  the  class  of  immigration  in  the  last 
four  years  will  show  that  it  has  decidedly  improved,  and 
in  this  period  we  have  received  a  large  number  of 
Japanese  students  and  technical  men  who  came  to  the 
country  primarily  for  educational  purposes,  but  stayed 
because  of  the  superior  advantages.  The  quality  of 
Japanese  immigration  is  and  has  been  in  every  way  su- 
perior to  that  received  from  many  other  countries  which 
were  practically  without  restriction. 

Actual  Japanese  Population. 

While  those  forces  that  are  hostile  to  the  Japanese  are 
in  agreement  upon  most  phases  of  this  question,  there  is 
no  unity  of  opinion  among  them  as  to  the  actual  Japanese 
population  in  California.  This  population  is  variously  es- 
timated, depending  wholly  upon  the  source.  The  imagina- 
tive Mr.  V.  S.  McClatchy  has  placed  his  estimates  of  this 
population  as  over  100,000.  Mr.  James  D.  Phelan,  of 
San  Francisco,  estimated  it  somewhat  higher  in  his  recent 
campaign  for  the  United  States  Senate,  in  which  he  was 
defeated.  The  Hearst  papers  have  their  own  individual 
estimate.  But  there  is  in  fact  no  reason  for  depending 
upon  any  one  individual  estimate.  There  are  perfectly  ac- 
curate statistics  compiled  by  the  State  Board  of  Control 
as  well  as  the  United  States  Federal  Census. 


84  Japanese  in  America 

The  official  figures  of  this  Board  show  that  there  are 
87,279  Japanese  resident  in  the  State  of  California,  and 
there  is,  of  course,  a  strong  presumption  that  the  State 
Census  takers  are  quite  as  accurate  as  either  Mr.  Mc- 
Clatchy  or  Mr.  Phelan. 

Now  it  is  true  that  there  has  been  a  decided  growth  of 
the  Japanese  population  in  the  last  ten  years,  particularly 
in  the  birth  rate,  but  when  the  subject  is  impartially  and 
carefully  analyzed,  there  is  nothing  particularly  alarming 
in  this  increase. 

It  is  impossible  to  get  the  proper  perspective  without 
considering  the  Japanese  population  from  1900  and  com- 
paring the  ratio  of  Japanese  with  that  of  the  white  popu- 
lation. There  can  be  no  attempt  made  to  deny  that  the 
Japanese  population  has  increased  materially  in  California 
in  the  last  20  years,  but  so  has  the  white  population,  and 
comparison  of  ratios  is  the  only  proper  way  to  arrive  at 
exact  conclusions. 

In  1900  the  Japanese  numbered  10,151  out  of  a  popula- 
tion of  1,485,053.  By  1910,  the  Japanese  population  had 
increased  to  41,356,  but  the  total  population  of  California 
in  the  same  period  had  increased  to  2,377,549.  In  1920 
the  Japanese  population  had  risen  to  87,279  against  a 
total  population  of  3,426,861.  Viewed  separately,  the 
Japanese  population  has  shown  a  very  marked  increase  in 
this  twenty-year  period,  but  when  the  ratio  to  the  total 
population  is  considered  it  is  perfectly  preposterous  to 
claim  that  the  dominance  of  the  white  element  is 
threatened.  Certainly  no  one  could  possibly  conceive  that 
2%  of  the  total  population  could  be  a  menace  to  the 
other  98%. 

The  actual  average  yearly  increase  of  Japanese  in  the 
State  of  California  has  been  about  4,600.  The  figures 
given  are  official  State  figures  and  must  be  taken  as  ac- 
curate.    The  Japanese  Association  of  America,  which  is 


Japanese  Population  in  California  85 

particularly  interested  in  vital  statistics  concerning  its 
people,  has  a  slight  doubt  as  to  the  accuracy  of  the  figures 
of  19 10,  nor  do  they  place  the  last  figures  as  high  as  those 
given  by  the  State  Board  of  Control. 

The  Japanese,  owing  to  the  fact  that  many  of  them 
do  not  speak  English,  present  a  problem  to  the  census 
takers,  and  because  of  this  there  unquestionably  have  been 
mistakes  made  by  even  the  State  Board.  The  Japanese 
Association,  on  the  other  hand,  employs  native  census 
takers  and  is  in  a  position  to  be  in  very  close  touch 
with  all  their  people  in  California.  According  to  their 
figures  there  are  78,628  Japanese  residents  of  the  State, 
and  about  5,000  temporarily  absent  in  Japan,  or  a  total 
of  83,626, — a  difference  of  about  4,000  in  that  of  State 
figures. 

It  is  well  also  to  consider  the  various  reasons  underly- 
ing this  increase  in  population  and  to  determine  the  exact 
number  that  have  been  admitted  as  immigrants  and  the 
exact  birth  rate. 

From  1910  to  1919  American  immigration  statistics 
show  that  32,196  Japanese  were  admitted.  This  number 
added  to  the  41,356  shown  by  the  census  of  1910  accounts 
for  73,552.  During  the  same  period,  however,  7,910 
immigrants  departed  from  the  United  States  and  returned 
to  Japan,  leaving  a  balance  of  66,442.  Immigrants  from 
Hawaii,  however,  added  506  to  this  number,  and  the 
registered  births  for  the  same  period  were  27,828,  making 
a  total  of  94,776  accounted  for.  The  reported  deaths  for 
this  period  were  7,497,  and  deducting  this  from  the 
94,776,  a  figure  of  87,279  is  arrived  at,  which  is  the 
exact  census  of  the  State  Board  of  Control.  Certainly 
there  can  be  no  dispute  as  to  this  figure,  for  it  is  official, 
and  the  State  officials,  generally  speaking,  certainly  can- 
not be  considered  pro-Japanese. 

It  is  true  that  this  population  has  more  than  doubled  in 


86  Japanese  in  America 

the  last  20  years,  but  the  author  submits  for  the  con- 
sideration of  the  reader  the  reasons  underlying  this  in- 
crease. It  is  absurd  to  assume  that  the  very  small  portion 
of  Japanese  as  compared  to  the  total  population  can  in 
any  way  interfere  with  or  disturb  California  business  or 
California  agriculture. 

Citizens  by  Birth, 

The  high  birth  rate  among  the  Japanese  is  used  as  one 
of  the  strongest  arguments  against  them  by  the  Anti- 
Japanese  agitators.  It  has  been  stated  that  if  the  present 
birthrate  should  continue  there  would  be  over  1,000,000 
Japanese  in  the  State  of  California  within  half  a  century, 
and  the  whole  population  outnumbered,  and  that  at  no 
distant  period. 

The  State  Board  of  Control  gave  the  birth  rate  among 
the  Japanese  as  46.44  and  among  the  white  population  as 
16.59  Per  thousand  respectively.  Assuming  that  these 
figures  are  reliable  and  taken  as  a  whole  they  show  a 
ratio  of  3  to  1  to  that  of  the  white.  They  still  do  not 
prove  the  menace  that  the  anti-Japanese  propagandists 
would  have  us  believe.  As  an  elementary  fact,  sex  dis- 
tribution, marital  conditions,  age  groups  and  age  compo- 
sition must  be  carefully  studied  before  accurate  conclu- 
sions can  be  reached.  It  is  unfair  to  compare  the  birth 
rate  among  the  Japanese  immigrants  with  that  of  the 
white  population  unless  you  compare  at  the  same  time 
the  intellectual  status,  the  age,  social  environment  and 
income  of  the  groups  compared.  The  birth  rate  of  the 
white  population  as  distinguished  from  the  immigrants, 
whether  white  or  Japanese,  is  exceedingly  low,  and  has 
been  the  subject  of  a  great  deal  of  study  by  economists 
and  social  investigators. 

The  birth  rate  of  these  people  does  not  show  a  higher 
ratio  than  that  of  the  newly  arrived   immigrant   from 


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Japanese  Population  in  California  87 

Southern  Europe,  Russia  or  a  like  class.  If  it  were  pos- 
sible to  select  for  more  accurate  comparison  those  white 
married  women  of  a  social,  economic  and  intellectual 
status  similar  to  that  of  the  Japanese,  the  disparity  in  the 
birth  rate  would  undoubtedly  be  less  marked,  but  unfor- 
tunately, statistics  are  usually  considered  as  a  whole  and 
not  analyzed. 

But  granting  for  the  sake  of  expediency  that  the 
Japanese  birth  rate  has  been  in  the  past  exceedingly  high, 
it  is  still  possible  of  a  rational  explanation.  In  the  first 
place,  it  is  an  undeniable  truth  which  has  been  scien- 
tifically established  that  the  birth  rate  is  always  high 
among  foreign  immigrants  during  their  first  generation. 
Among  the  Italians  and  the  Spanish  it  is  quite  high — 
possibly  higher  than  among  the  Japanese.  It  is  the 
opinion  of  authority  that  the  fundamentals  underlying 
this  fact  are  that  the  majority  of  immigrants  come  from 
families  whose  membership  is  comparatively  large.  Con- 
sequently the  immigrants  constituting  the  first  generation 
are  biologically  prolific  and  their  birth  rate  must  neces- 
sarily be  high.  In  the  following  generations,  having 
adopted  the  new  conditions  of  life,  it  will  fall  back  gradu- 
ally until  it  is  about  that  of  the  average. 

Again,  in  considering  this  immigration,  only  strong 
and  healthy  individuals  are  admitted,  and  it  is  an  indis- 
putable fact  that  there  is  an  intimate  relation  between 
the  physical  condition  of  the  individual  and  the  bearing 
of  children.  Because  these  facts  hold  true,  the  birth  rate 
of  the  Japanese  has  naturally  been  high  during  this,  the 
first  generation.  A  far  more  important  and  necessary 
fact  to  consider  is  the  comparative  increase  in  the  number 
of  young  women  who  have  become  wives.  A  thorough 
analysis  of  sex  distribution  should  also  be  made. 

In  1910  there  were  scattered  all  over  California  6,362 
Japanese  women,  most  of  whom  were  along  in  years. 


88  Japanese  in  America 

From  19 10  to  1920,  approximately  10,000  women  were 
added  to  the  population  by  immigration,  and  the  vast 
majority  were  young  women  who  came  in  with  the 
definite  purpose  of  matrimony.  The  average  age  of  this 
group  was  under  25  years.  Add  to  this  factor  of  age  the 
influence  of  the  new  environment,  which  because  of  the 
improvement  in  social  and  economic  conditions  assured 
them  an  ease  of  living  conditions  compared  with  their 
previous  environment,  and  most  favorable  factors  con- 
tributing to  childbirth  are  established.  It  could  not  be 
expected  that  other  than  a  high  birth  rate  would  prevail 
under  these  conditions. 

The  fact  that  it  is  higher  than  the  average  prevailing 
among  the  white  races  is  probably  due  more  to  the 
limited  social  and  economic  advantages  and  their  less 
advanced  intellectual  status, — a  necessary  condition 
among  the  first  generation  of  immigrants  in  a  strange 
land. 

The  ignorant  always  suffer  from  a  high  birth  rate, 
which  is  invariably  accompanied  by  a  high  death  rate, 
but  as  they  advance,  their  power  of  fecundity  falls.  As 
the  Japanese  emerge  from  their  present  status,  and  they 
are  doing  this  wonderfully  well,  their  birth  rate  will 
surely  fall.  In  summing  up,  it  is  plainly  unfair  to  judge 
the  future  increase  in  Japanese  population  by  the  past. 
There  has  been  every  condition  to  contribute  to  an  ab- 
normal increase  in  Japanese  by  birth  in  the  past  ten  years, 
and  this  condition  can  not  exist  in  the  future.  This  con- 
viction is  strengthened  when  we  note  that  the  number  of 
women  of  marriageable  age  to  arrive  in  the  United 
States  has  been  particularly  large,  and  as  picture  marri- 
ages are  now  practically  forbidden  this  cannot  happen 
again.  There  is  a  strong  probability  that  the  Japanese 
population  will  decrease  in  birth  rate  in  the  future. 
Moreover,  it  is  an  utter  injustice  to  charge  this  ambiguous 


Japanese  Population  in  California  89 

question  of  birth  rate  to  the  immigrant  question  and  to 
over-emphasize  it,  for  a  high  birth  rate  in  itself  has  never 
been  considered  sinful  or  to  be  condemned.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  frequently  thought  to  be  a  valuable  asset  to  a 
nation,  and  the  problem  is  not  one  of  birth  rate,  but  rather 
how  to  assimilate  and  Americanize  this  added  element. 
In  brief,  this  question  of  birth  rate  is  a  social  and  not  an 
immigration  problem. 

The  following  charts  show  the  percentage  of  Japanese 
births  to  the  total  births  in  California  and  the  ratio  of 
Japanese  births  to  that  of  whites  in  the  State,  as  well  as 
the  vital  statistics  concerning  all  births  and  deaths : 


Year 


1908 
1909 
1910 
1911 
1912 


Percent, 
of  Jap. 

Births  to 
Total 
Births 

.      1.6 

.      2.2 

.      2.2 

.    2.9 
.    3.7 


Percent. 

of  White 

Births  to 

Total 

Births 

96.8 
96.3 
96.1 
96.5 
94.6 


Year 

1913  .. 

1914  .. 

1915  .. 

1916  .. 

1917  .. 


Percent. 

of  Jap. 
Births  to 

Total 
Births 

..      5.5 

..  6.2 

..  6.9 

..  7.3 

..  7.8 


Percent. 

of  White 

Births  to 

Total 

Births 

93.2 
91.9 
91.3 
91.4 
90.6 


(Note — The  figures  are  by  the  State  Board  of  Health). 


Tot.  Births 
including 
Year       all  races 

1908...  28,077 

1909...  30,882 

1910...  32,138 

1911...  34,426 

1912...  39,330 


White 
Births 

27,190 
29,736 
30,893 
33,245 
37,194 


Japanese 
Births 

455 


719 

995 

1,467 


Tot.  Births 
including 
Year     all  races 


1913... 
1914... 
1915... 
1916... 
1917... 


43,852 
46,012 
48,075 
50,638 
52,230 


White 
Births 

40,864 

42,281 
43,874 
46,272 
47,314 


Japanees 

Births 

2,215 

2,874 
3,342 
3,721 
4,108 


Year  Births 

1908 455 

1909 682 

1910 719 

1911 995 

1912 1,467 

1913 2,215 


Deaths  Year                      Births  Deaths 

431   1914 2,874  628 

450  1915 3,342  663 

440  1916 3,721  729 

472  1917 4,108  910 

524  

613         Total 20,578  5,860 


90  Japanese  in  America 

Occupations  of  the  Various  Japanese. 

A  preponderating  number  of  Japanese  go  into  farming 
and  a  type  of  farming  that  is  not  looked  upon  favorably 
by  the  Caucasian.  The  total  Japanese  engaged  in  agri- 
culture in  19 1 8,  the  last  available  statistics,  were  38,008, 
about  55%  to  56%  of  the  entire  Japanese  population. 

The  following  table  shows  the  actual  number  engaged 
in  farming  their  own  lands,  and  employed  as  farm  hands, 
and  their  families: 

Farmers   ; 7,973 

Farmers'   wives 4,560 

Farmers'  boys  under  16  years 3,396 

Farmers'  girls  under  16  years 3,114 

Farm  hands 15,794 

Farm  hands'  wives 1,663 

Farm  hands'  boys  under  16  years 771 

Farm  hands'  girls  under  16  years 737 

Total   38,008 

A  total  of  527  farms  were  owned  by  Japanese,  com- 
prising an  acreage  of  29,105,  and  5,936  farms  were 
leased,  comprising  an  acreage  of  336,721,  or  a  total  num- 
ber of  6,463  farms  with  a  total  acreage  of  365,826  owned 
and  leased  by  Japanese.  In  addition  to  this  there  are  a 
number  of  American  corporations  in  which  Japanese 
farmers  have  minority  interests.  The  area  cultivated  by 
these  corporations  was  estimated  at  about  13,000  acres, 
mostly  rice  fields  and  vineyards.  With  this  large  per- 
centage of  the  Japanese  residents  engaged  in  farming  it 
is  well  to  consider  the  type  of  farming  engaged  in  to  de- 
termine their  economic  value  to  the  State.  The  following 
table  is  self-explanatory  and  shows  that  the  type  of  farm- 
ing most  popular  with  them  is  that  requiring  a  large 


Japanese  Population  in  California  91 

amount  of  hand  labor,  which  is  exactly  the  type  avoided 
by  the  white  element : 

p.  C.  of 

Acreage  by         Tot.Acreage    Jap.  to  Tot. 
Product  Japanese  by  all  Acreage 

Berries    5,968  6,500  91.8 

Celery   3,568  4,000  89.2 

Asparagus   9,927  12,000  82.7 

Seeds    15,847  20,000  79.2 

Onions  9,251  12,112  76.3 

Tomatoes    10,616  16,000  66.3 

Cantaloupes    9,581  15,000  63.8 

Sugar  Beets 51,604  102,949  50.1 

Green  Vegetables 17,852  75,000  23.8 

Potatoes    18,830  90,175  20.8 

Rice    16,640  106,220  16. 

Hops   1,260  8,000  15.7 

Grapes    47,439  360,000  13.1 

Beans  77,107  592,000  13. 

Cotton    18,000  179,860  10. 

Corn    7,845  85,000                 9.2 

Fruit  and  Nuts  29,210  715,000                4. 

Hay  and  Grain 15,753  2,200,000                0.6 

Much  of  the  reclamation  work  in  certain  sections  of 
California  has  been  possible  only  because  of  the 
Japanese.  Their  ability  to  work  under  adverse  condi- 
tions, combined  with  their  meager  standard  of  living,  per- 
mits them  to  succeed  where  white  labor  will  not  and  can- 
not. The  chief  argument  against  them  in  connection 
with  their  farming  enterprise  is  that  they  are  ambitious 
and  aspire  to  own.  This  is  the  most  striking  of  Amer- 
ican characteristics,  and  the  author  cannot  see  why  the 
Japanese  should  be  singled  out  and  legislated  against 
because  of  their  marked  success  and  their  ambition. 
Statistics  on  the  subject  simply  show  that  these  farmers 
fill  a  gap  created  by  the  unwillingness  of  others  to  engage 
in  that  class  of  farming  requiring  exclusive  hand  labor. 

The    non-farming    population    comprises    merchants, 


92  Japanese  in  America 

technical  men  and  all  other  classes,  and  is  composed  of 
the  following: 

Men  18,075 

Women    6,006 

Boys  under  16  years 3,710 

Girls  under  16  years 3,180 

Total   30,971 

Character  of  the  Work  Performed, 

It  is  evident  from  the  statistics  that  a  majority  of 
the  Japanese  in  California  are  engaged  in  agriculture 
and  horticulture,  and  this  element,  with  their  families, 
constitute  perhaps  6o  per  cent  of  the  total  population. 
Next  to  this  type  of  employment,  they  are  found  chiefly 
in  merchandising,  dealing  particularly  with  a  class  of 
merchandise  that  is  manufactured  in  Japan. 

If  the  Japanese  engaged  in  agriculture  have  taken  up 
a  class  of  land  that  is  not  worked  by  white  labor,  and 
those  who  have  established  themselves  as  merchants  are 
handling  a  type  of  merchandise  that  is  manufactured 
in  their  own  country,  one  of  the  chief  arguments  against 
them  is  disposed  of,  for  in  neither  instance  are  they 
competing  with  either  American  labor  or  American 
business. 

Ratio  of  Japanese  Crime  to  That  of  Other  Nationals, 

Even  their  most  bitter  enemies  do  not  contend  that 
the  Japanese  are  other  than  law-abiding.  While  exact 
statistics  are  not  available,  an  examination  of  the  court 
records  in  the  various  cities  of  California  show  an  ex- 
ceedingly small  ratio  of  Japanese  crime  when  compared 
with  that  of  other  nationalities.  They  are  primarily 
strict  observers  of  the  law,  and  the  few  crimes  of  which 


Japanese  Population  in  California  93 

they  are  convicted  are  usually  committed  because  of 
ignorance.  A  very  few  of  them  have  been  convicted  of 
capital  offenses,  but  the  majority  of  convictions  are  made 
for  petty  offenses  due  to  ignorance. 

From  the  standpoint  of  law  observance,  the  Japanese 
are  among  our  best  citizens. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
Standard  of  Wage  and  Working  Hours. 

'HPHE  popular  conception  is  that  the  Japanese  are  will- 
-*-  ing  to  work  long  hours  at  exceedingly  low  wages, 
and  because  of  this  they  are  dangerous  to  the 
economic  welfare  of  white  labor.  This  seems  to  be  a 
general  fallacy,  but  any  employer  who  has  handled 
Japanese  labor  knows  that  they  are  exceedingly  anxious 
to  receive  a  good  measure  of  pay  for  their  work.  In 
fact,  the  employer  on  the  one  hand  contends  that  the 
Japanese  are  not  desirable  because  they  will  not  work 
for  low  wages,  and  on  the  other  hand  they  are  accused 
of  being  economically  impossible  because  they  will  work 
for  low  wages.  Both  arguments  are  used  against  them 
and  neither  are  true. 

Average  W age  Received. 

Now,  it  is  true  that  the  Japanese  are  exceedingly 
industrious  and  they  are  not  sticklers  as  to  hours,  pro- 
viding they  are  paid  for  their  overtime.  They  are 
certainly  not  alone  in  this,  as  overtime  was  up  until 
recently  very  popular  in  all  branches  of  American  in- 
dustry. In  view  of  the  difference  in  opinions  it  is  well 
to  consider  actual  statistics  on  the  subject.  vThey  are 
available  and  demonstrate  conclusively  that  the  Japanese 
laborers  in  agriculture  receive  somewhat  more  than  the 
white  laborer  in  the  same  industry. 

The  following  report  compares  the  average  monthly 
wages  paid  by  Japanese  employers  in  22  counties  in  the 
northern  part  of  California  during  the  year  19 19.    It  was 

194] 


Standard  of  Wage  and  Working  Hours      95 

tabulated  by  the  Japanese  Association  of  America  from 
employers'  reports,  and  a  total  of  958  agricultural  and 
715  commercial  replies  were  analyzed. 


REPORT  1. 

Agricultural. 

Japanese  White 

With  Without  With  Without 

Counties  Board  Board  Board  Board 

Alameda   $  95.00  $120.00  $100.00  $118.00 

Butte  103.00  130.00  100.00  120.00 

Contra  Costa  103.50  128.00  112.00  121.00 

Colusa   120.00  153.70           187.00 

Fresno    95.50  126.45  80.00  130.00 

Inyo   100.00  135.00  85.00  120.00 

Kings   105.00  121.70            127.00 

Monterey  86.25  145.83  101.70  135.00 

Napa  75.00  120.00  80.00  100.00 

Placer  120.00  145.00            112.00 

Stanislaus    130.00  161.00  125.00  155.00 

San  Joaquin 101.80  119.00  102.00  119.00 

Solano   96.10  117.80  89.50  111.60 

Santa  Cruz  120.00  140.00  95.00  145.00 

San   Francisco 100.00  123.00  95.00  123.00 

Santa  Clara  75.00  100.00  75.00  111.60 

San  Mateo  105.00  120.00  120.00  150.00 

San  Benito  110.80  134.08  87.00  133.04 

Sacramento    114.00  140.85  122.05  131.00 

Tulare    82.40            82.40            

Yuba  101.20  127.00  103.30  135.00 


Average   $101.91  $130.66  $97.22         $128.32 

A  majority  of  the  white  labor  employed  by  Japanese 
farmers  is  skilled.  Consequently  the  average  wage  of 
the  Japanese  farmhand,  a  majority  of  whom  are  un- 
skilled, is  lower  than  that  of  the  whites.  When  Japanese 
unskilled  labor  is  compared  with  unskilled  white  labor, 
however,  the  Japanese  average  is  higher  than  the  white. 


96 


Japanese  in  America 


Their  Earnings  in  Business, 

In  commercial  occupations  the  Japanese  do  not  do  as 
well  as  the  whites  for  some  very  obvious  reasons.  In 
the  first  place,  the  vast  majority  of  them  are  not  skilled. 
They  have  had  but  little  opportunity  to  acquire  Ameri- 
can methods  and  skill,  and  then,  as  a  general  rule,  they 
are  very  much  more  contented  in  agricultural  employ- 
ment, which  will  eventually  lead  them  to  either  ownership 
or  lease  of  land.  Economic  independence  through  agri- 
culture is  the  basic  hope  of  the  vast  majority  of  them. 

The  table  given  below  is  a  comparison  of  the  wages 
paid  Japanese  and  white  semi-skilled  labor  by  Japanese 
employers  in  Northern  California  during  the  year  19 19. 
The  comparison  is  entirely  adequate,  as  but  few  Japanese 
are  employed  in  commercial  work,  and  this  only  as 
semi-skilled  workmen. 


Commercial. 

Counties  Japanese 

Alameda    $  99.00 

Butte    85.00 

Contra   Costa..  113.50 

Colusa   116.20 

Fresno  100.00 

Inyo   92.35 

Kings   110.00 

Monterey   130.00 

Napa  95.00 

Placer  90.00 

Stanislaus  ....  93.00 


REPORT  2. 

White 

Counties 

Japanese 

$100.00 

San  Joaquin  . 

.  130.00 

100.00 

Solano   

.    92.50 

150.00 

Santa  Cruz. .. 

.  105.00 

110.00 

San  Francisco 

.  114.00 

100.00 

Santa  Clara. . 

100.00 

San  Mateo. . . 

.    95.00 

120.00 

San  Benito... 

.  101.60 

150.00 

Sacramento  . . 

.    90.00 

95.00 

Tulare 

.    85.00 

125.00 

Yuba   

100.00 

White 

96.00 
83.00 
85.00 

87.05 
100.00 
100.00 


Average  ....$106.00        $101.91 


Hours  of  Work, 

A  most  common  charge  made  against  these  farmers 
is  that  their  working  hours  are  long  and  the  American 
farmers  cannot  compete  with  them.     This  contention, 


Standard  of  Wage  and  Working  Hours      97 

like  so  many  arguments  advanced  by  the  anti- Japanese 
agitators,  is  only  a  half-truth  and  should  be  carefully 
analyzed  and  explained. 

Their  chief  characteristics  as  a  whole  are  their 
industry  and  perseverance.  Both  of  these  qualities 
are  ingrained  in  the  average  Japanese,  and  unre- 
mitting industry  is  his  most  important  quality.  Natur- 
ally, those  who  come  here  possess  the  power  of 
endurance  and  this  priceless  habit.  Certainly  it  seems 
rather  strange  for  the  American  people  to  complain 
of  these  traits,  for  they  are  generally  considered 
ones  for  any  nation  to  possess.  It  is  entirely  probable 
that  the  Japanese  who  have  settled  here  possess  more 
than  the  average  initiative  on  the  principal  that  the  indi- 
vidual who  migrates  from  his  own  country  to  a  strange 
land  must  possess  a  high  degree  of  both  initiative  and 
courage.  Then  the  Japanese  who  landed  here  encountered 
innumerable  handicaps  and  found  that  the  best  asset  they 
possessed  was  their  unremitting  toil.  Consequently  they 
worked  hard.  They  are  accustomed  to  hard  work,  and 
to  them  it  seems  the  only  means  through  which  they 
can  secure  economic  independence.  It  is  largely  hard 
work  which  has  brought  the  American  nation  to  its 
present  eminence,  and  it  would  seem  to  be  the  last  quality 
that  should  be  condemned  by  Americans. 

The  Japanese,  however,  have  been  very  quick  to  adopt 
American  hours  of  labor  and,  contrary  to  the  popular 
belief,  Japanese  farming  camps  all  over  the  State  have 
standard  working  hours  similar  to  those  of  the  American 
farmers.  Japanese  laborers  work  under  these  hours,  and 
refuse  to  work  longer  hours  unless  they  are  paid  for 
them.  It  is  to  the  interest  of  the  laborer  to  work  as 
short  hours  as  possible,  and  this  tendency  applies  quite 
as  well  to  them  as  to  the  whites.     Long  hours  apply 


98  Japanese  in  America 

to  only  specific  industries,  particularly  those  in  harvest- 
ing perishable  crops,  and  here  we  find  the  white  also 
working  hours  beyond  the  standard.  One  of  the  chief 
complaints  of  the  American  farmer  has  been  that  because 
of  the  perishable  qualities  of  his  crop  he  was  forced  to 
work  a  much  longer  period  than  the  man  employed  in 
industry. 

Casual  observers  almost  always  fail  to  distinguish 
between  the  Japanese  farm  hand  who  maintains  standard 
hours  and  those  farmers  who  manage  their  own  enter- 
prises. Many  Japanese  farmers  are  pioneers,  and  to  the 
pioneer,  life  and  work  are  usually  synonymous.  This 
applies  to  the  white  element  as  well  as  to  the  Japanese. 
Economic  necessity  in  the  shape  of  a  shortage  of  labor 
has  forced  them  to  utilize  every  possible  opportunity, 
and  this  also  means  stretching  the  working  day. 

There  is  absolutely  nothing  to  show  that  the  Japanese 
laborer,  or  farmer  either,  for  that  matter,  desires  to 
work  more  hours  than  the  energetic,  alert,  successful 
American  farmer,  but  like  many  of  the  other  popular 
fallacies  in  connection  with  this  question,  it  has  been 
good  propaganda,  and  good  propaganda  means  increased 
circulation  or  the  fulfillment  of  political  aspirations. 

The  Intense  Amplication  of  the  Japanese. 

If  the  energy  that  is  directed  toward  complicating  an 
international  situation  could  be  turned  into  new  channels, 
the  average  conception  of  these  people  would  be  decid- 
edly changed.  Any  reasonable  analysis  of  these  little 
brown  men  will  show  that  their  fundamental  interests 
are  the  same  as  ours.  Their  environment  had  been  any- 
thing but  an  easy  one,  and  they  came  here  with  the  idea 
of  achieving  success.  They  are  willing  to  work  and  to 
pioneer.      Anything   that    the   individual   Japanese    sets 


Standard  of  Wage  and  Working  Hours      99 

himself  to  do,  he  usually  puts  above  every  other  interest. 
Intense  application  characterizes  his  work  in  every  field. 
Most  certainly  he  cannot,  and  should  not  be  condemned 
for  this  quality.  If  we  would  spend  a  little  energy  in 
helping  him  to  adjust  himself  to  an  American  standard, 
and  urging  him  to  create  some  leisure  time  for  self- 
development,  a  very  different  condition  would  prevail. 
They  do  try  to  adjust  themselves  to  the  new  conditions 
of  life.  Many  of  them  have  succeeded,  and  this  with- 
out any  sort  of  American  help. 

The  Japanese  are  not  allowed  to  join  with  American 
labor  movements.  They  are  not  given  any  social  oppor- 
tunities except  those  which  they  create  for  themselves.  In 
fact,  they  are  left  entirely  to  work  out  their  own  prob- 
lems. Successful  Americanization  cannot  be  accom- 
plished while  this  condition  prevails.  A  sympathetic 
attitude  and  less  antagonism  is  the  only  way  the  Japanese 
can  adjust  himself  to  a  proper  American  standard. 

Achievements, 

The  most  striking  achievements  of  these  people  have 
been  in  agriculture,  because  this  was  their  primary  in- 
terest. As  an  example,  the  town  of  Livingston  is  one 
of  the  best  of  their  agricultural  settlements  in  California, 
and  at  the  same  time  it  is  one  of  the  least  known. 

The  story  is  almost  a  romance.  It  is  a  tale  of 
tremendous  struggle  against  hostile  natural  conditions, 
financial  disaster,  and  year  after  year  of  disappointment, 
but  a  struggle  maintained  by  stout  hearts  with  indomit- 
able perseverance,  until  it  ended,  as  a  romance  should, 
in  complete  victory.  It  is  a  tale,  too,  of  the  power  of 
Christian  faith,  of  a  moral  triumph  over  material 
obstacles  no  less  than  the  material  triumph,  that  the 
Livingston  colonists  have  won. 


100  Japanese  in  America 

For  Livingston  is  a  Christian  colony,  and  that  fact 
has,  in  more  than  one  way,  profoundly  influenced  its 
development.  It  is  that  fact  that  prevents  Living- 
ston, the  highest  example  of  a  Japanese  farming 
community  in  California,  from  being  taken  as  the  most 
typical  example.  The  fact  that  many  of  its  members 
were  Christians  has  had  so  much  to  do  with  the  success 
of  the  community  that  it  has  in  a  measure  set  this  colony 
apart  from  other  Japanese  agricultural  settlements. 

The  soil  was  shifting  sand,  blown  by  desert  winds 
that  sucked  up  and  whirled  away  every  vestige  of  mois- 
ture, its  bare  surface  scorched  by  a  fierce  sun.  There 
was  no  shade,  no  water,  no  sanitation,  no  school,  no 
church.  There  was  nothing  to  make  life  worth  living. 
In  fact,  life  there  was  believed  impossible. 

An  American  colony  had  been  planted  at  Livingston 
twelve  years  before,  but  after  a  brief  struggle  with 
hostile  conditions,  had  vanished.  It  simply  "blew  away," 
its  distant  neighbors  said.  These  Japanese  were  laughed 
at  when  they  announced  that  they  would  settle  at 
Livingston.  Their  own  people  laughed  at  them.  They 
were  told  that  they,  too,  would  be  blown  away  by  the 
fierce  winds  that  whirled  over  the  hot  sands. 

The  colony  was  almost  blown  away.  Established  in 
1906,  it  faced  disaster  after  disaster  and  almost  starved 
through  five  lean  and  hungry  years  before  a  profit  came. 
It  found  conditions  at  Livingston  to  be  as  bad  as  they 
had  been  represented.  The  wind,  unhindered  as  it  now 
is  by  plantations  of  trees,  swept  away  the  soil  they  had 
loosened  by  cultivation  and  dried  up  their  young  plants. 
Grasshoppers  devoured  what  the  wind  left.  Water  for 
domestic  purposes  had  to  be  carried  for  two  miles.  Then, 
in  1909,  the  Japanese- American  Bank  in  San  Francisco, 
which  held  second  mortgages  on  their  lands,  closed  its 
doors. 


Standard  of  Wage  and  Working  Hours    101 

The  outlook  was  then  the  blackest  the  colony  had 
faced.  The  members  had  no  money  in  their  houses. 
Families  were  without  a  nickel  on  hand.  Through  the 
long  hard  times  that  followed  there  were  many  days 
when  families  could  not  buy  bread.  They  got  along 
only  by  little  borrowings,  and  there  were  many  instances 
when  five  cents  carried  an  entire  household  for  several 
days. 

But  they  hung  on.  In  the  darkest  days  they  refused 
to  think  of  giving  up.  They  were  determined  not  to 
be  blown  away.    It  was  then  that  their  faith  saved  them. 

The  Japanese  colony  here  now  includes  forty-two 
farmers,  all  of  whom  have  families.  Most  of  them  are 
organized  in  the  Livingston  Co-operative  Society,  which 
markets  their  crops  and  buys  their  supplies  and  mate- 
rials. The  society,  which  has  been  very  successful,  is 
capitalized  at  $25,000,  and  owns  a  packing-house  which 
cost  $10,000.  The  members  of  the  colony  own  a  total 
of  1,730  acres,  with  forty  acres  as  the  average  holding, 
all  under  cultivation.  Grapes,  both  of  the  table  and 
raisin  varieties,  are  the  principal  crop,  with  peaches  next. 
Some  other  fruits  are  raised.  K.  Naka  makes  figs  his 
main  crop  and  has  also  an  almond  orchard  which, 
according  to  the  Horticultural  Commissioner  at  Modesto, 
is  the  finest  almond  orchard  in  California. 

One  member  of  the  Co-operative  Society  realized  in 
the  year  just  closed  $800  an  acre  from  Malaga  grapes, 
and  $900  an  acre  from  Tokays.  And  this  was  on  land 
which,  when  the  Japanese  farmer  took  it,  was  shifting 
sand,  blowing  before  the  wind. 

In  the  eleven  years  since  the  Japanese  founded  their 
colony,  fruit  shipments  from  Livingston  have  increased 
from  nothing  in  1906  to  260  carloads  in  19 17.  The 
value  of  bare  land  has  risen  from  $35  to  $175  an  acre. 
There   is   nowhere   else   in    California   a   more   striking 


102  :  :"  :  tK '  i '    Japanese  in  America 

example  of  the  increase  of  community  wealth  due  to 
the  grit  and  industry  of  Japanese  pioneers  than  this  at 
Livingston.  Nor  is  there  elsewhere  among  the  many 
cases  in  which  the  Japanese  farmer  has  discovered  and 
proved  soil  possibilities  for  the  benefit  of  American 
farmers  coming  after,  one  more  striking  than  this  ex- 
ample of  the  Livingston  colony. 

Livingston  is  only  one  of  the  many  examples  of 
Japanese  industry.  As  a  farmer  he  has  been  pre- 
eminently a  pioneer,  both  in  agriculture  and  horticulture, 
and  his  work  is  characterized  by  all  the  pioneer's  quality 
of  enterprise,  perseverance  and  courage.  Immense 
acreages  along  the  lower  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin 
rivers  have  been  reclaimed  from  their  original  condition 
of  worthless  Tulle  lands  and  brought  into  a  certain  state 
of  culture.  The  Santa  Clara  Valley  has  also  met  with 
the  improving  hand  of  the  Japanese.  In  every  instance, 
he  has  been  an  improver,  and  is  usually  required  to  take 
up  a  type  of  land  that  the  white  would  not  and  could  not 
work. 

The  case  of  George  Shima  is  one  of  the  best  demon- 
strations of  their  capacity  to  succeed.  Mr.  Shima  came 
to  this  country  an  immigrant  boy  with  no  particular 
advantages.  He  saw  the  opportunities  in  growing  pota- 
toes on  land  that  had  previously  been  considered  worth- 
less. This  land  he  developed  until  today  he  controls 
several  thousand  acres.  His  life  story  is  almost  a 
romance.  Several  times  he  has  lost  his  entire  fortune, 
but  patiently  started  in  again  and  rebuilt.  Never  a 
speculator,  but  always  a  producer,  Mr.  Shima  has  finally 
emerged  with  a  very  comfortable  fortune. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
Standard  of  Living. 

ONE  of  the  allegations  which  has  been  often  made 
by  the  Anti-Japanese  agitators  is  that  these  people 
are  economically  undesirable  because  of  their  low 
standard  of  living;  that  the  Japanese  immigrant  because 
of  his  very  meager  diet  and  his  mode  of  living  can  work 
for  very  low  wages,  thus  becoming  a  competitor  of  the 
more  highly  paid  American  labor,  and  is  in  a  position  to 
underbid  the  American  workman. 

In  this,  as  in  other  instances,  the  Anti-Japanese 
propagandists  have  seized  upon  an  economic  limitation 
and  attempted  to  show  that  it  exists  as  a  racial  charac- 
teristic. It  is  a  positive  fact  that  the  Japanese  as  a 
nation  have  a  very  restricted  diet  and  that  their  general 
standard  of  living  is  far  below  the  American  scale.  As  a 
parallel  truth,  the  rate  of  wage  paid  to  the  Japanese  work- 
man is  unbelievably  small. 

Now  the  question  arises  as  to  whether  or  not  the 
Japanese  desire  a  low  standard  of  living  and  for  this 
reason  have  submitted  willingly  to  a  low  wage  system. 
America  has  digested  millions  of  immigrants  whose  sole 
purpose  in  coming  to  America  was  to  better  their  eco- 
nomic position.  They  came  here  because  they  believed 
a  higher  degree  of  opportunity  existed  and  that  they 
could  sell  their  labor  for  a  higher  wage  than  that  existing 
in  their  respective  countries.  Here  we  find  the  Japanese 
wish  similar  to  that  of  other  immigrants.  He  comes  to 
this  country  to  secure  a  better  opportunity.  The  whole 
American  industrial  creed  is  based  upon  exactly  the  same 
thing, — that   of  constantly   improving  economic   oppor- 

[103] 


104  Japanese  in  America 

tunities  so  that  the  individual  may  have  an  increased 
earning  power. 

To  say  that  the  Japanese  are  satisfied  with  a  low 
standard  of  living  and  for  that  reason  they  are  willing  to 
work  for  a  pittance  is  preposterous.  Anyone,  who  has 
had  any  experience  with  Japanese  labor  can  testify  to  the 
fact  that  the  Japanese  not  only  will  not  work  for  a  low 
wage,  but  are  practically  never  satisfied  with  their  wage 
no  matter  what  it  be.  They  desire  and  constantly  strive 
to  secure  more  and  more  for  their  individual  efforts. 
They  will  work  on  a  salary  only  until  they  can  lease  or 
own  land,  or  in  some  way  get  into  business  for  them- 
selves. 

Upon  his  arrival  the  Japanese  immigrant  is  untrained. 
He  is  more  or  less  at  the  mercy  of  his  friends.  His 
surroundings  are  strange  and  frequently  he  takes  what 
to  him  may  seem  an  exceedingly  high  wage,  and  to  us 
a  ridiculously  low  one,  but  as  soon  as  he  adjusts  himself 
to  conditions  and  realizes  the  difference  in  the  price  of 
necessities,  he  demands  an  increased  wage,  and  because 
of  his  industriousness  he  usually  gets  it. 

Time  is  an  element  in  the  assimilation  of  any  immi- 
grant. This  applies  to  the  Japanese  and  for  this  reason 
the  standard  of  living  of  the  newly  arrived  immigrant  is 
relatively  low.  It  is  equally  preposterous  to  assume  that 
if  the  Japanese  constantly  maintained  a  low  standard  of 
living  and  were  satisfied  with  a  low  earning  power,  that 
they  could  affect  the  working  scale  of  American  industry. 
They  comprise,  even  in  California,  less  than  one  per 
cent  of  the  total  population,  and  half  of  these  are  women 
and  children  who  infrequently  work.  To  say  that  half 
of  one  per  cent  can  govern  the  entire  wage  scale  received 
by  the  rest  of  the  industrial  population  is  absurd  on  the 
face  of  it. 


Standard  of  Living  105 

Japanese  Home  Life. 

There  are  very  few  Americans  who  have  even  the 
slightest  conception  of  Japanese  home  life.  That  the 
Japanese  have  some  very  sterling  qualities  is  generally  ad- 
mitted, but  little  is  said  of  the  manner  in  which  they  bring 
up  their  children  or  of  many  of  their  splendid  traits. 

There  is  a  great  deal  in  the  Japanese  home  which  could 
well  be  copied  by  other  of  our  immigrants.  The  children 
are  early  taught  discipline.  The  Japanese  parent  is  not 
a  stern  or  unkindly  disciplinarian,  but  the  child  is  taught 
almost  from  birth  that  his  or  her  principal  duty  is  to  obey 
and  respect  the  parents. 

A  very  high  degree  of  courtesy  exists  even  in  the 
humblest  home  and  rarely,  if  ever,  does  one  see  any 
evidence  of  rowdyism  or  discourtesy  in  the  Japanese 
child.  Incidentally,  thrift  is  not  only  taught  but  prac- 
ticed. Their  ability  to  do  a  great  deal  with  a  very  little 
is  ingrained  and  goes  back  to  the  restricted  economic 
conditions  in  the  old  country.  The  author  has  never 
heard  that  thrift  is  anything  but  a  desirable  quality  and 
our  own  press  has  had  occasion  to  say  much  on  the  de- 
sirability of  cultivating  thrift  in  the  American  home. 
Frequently,  however,  it  is  used  against  the  Japanese. 

Their  Desire  to  Do  Agricultural  Work. 

The  Japanese  possess  one  trait  that  is  particularly  bene- 
ficial from  an  American  viewpoint.  That  is,  they  rarely 
go  into  the  cities,  but  primarily  look  for  work  in  the  agri- 
cultural districts. 

Before  and  during  the  war  agricultural  development 
was  seriously  hampered  by  a  lack  of  manpower.  The 
class  of  immigrants  being  received  desires  and  conse- 
quently does  to  a  great  extent  industrial  work  with  the 
result  that  our  cities  are  constantly  growing  larger  and 
the  country  population  smaller. 


106  Japanese  in  America 

In  19 10  our  country  population  was  nearly  half  of  the 
total  population.  By  1920  it  was  only  33  1/3  per  cent, 
with  the  result  that  food  production  has  suffered  in  the 
past  and  will  suffer  in  the  future.  The  American  Press 
is  constantly  harping  on  the  necessity  for  an  increase  in 
farm  labor.  The  Japanese,  from  an  economic  aspect,  at 
least,  is  an  ideal  farm  laborer.  He  is  primarily  indus- 
trious. He  is  accustomed  to  doing  hard  labor  and  he 
can  work  a  type  of  land  that  Caucasian  labor  will  not 
utilize.  No  one  could  contend  that  the  Tulle  lands  in  the 
San  Joaquin  Valley  would  ever  have  been  brought  into 
production  had  it  not  been  for  Japanese  labor. 

The  section  is  annually  producing  several  million  dol- 
lars in  crops,  and  properly  worked  is  exceedingly  pro- 
ductive. The  Japanese  have  supplied  the  man-power  that 
the  Caucasians  would  not.  With  this  tendency  to  seek 
employment  in  the  country,  the  Japanese  then  becomes 
either  an  agricultural  laborer  or  a  land  lessee.  In  either 
case,  he  adds  to  the  agricultural  productivity  of  the  par- 
ticular section  in  which  he  lives.  Frequently  the  work 
he  does  is  pioneering  and  his  standard  of  living  is  neces- 
sarily low.  The  pioneer  has  always  been  forced  to  live 
on  a  very  restricted  scale,  but  there  is  plenty  of  evidence 
that  as  the  Japanese  earning  power  increases  his  standard 
of  living  increases  as  well. 

The  fault  is  not  with  the  Japanese,  but  rather  due  to 
the  defects  in  the  economic  system.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
today  in  those  sections  which  have  been  settled  for  some 
length  of  time,  and  in  which  the  Japanese  population 
predominates,  a  much  higher  standard  of  living  will  be 
found  than  prevails  among  any  other  class  of  immigrants. 

Up  to  the  last  few  years  many  of  the  younger  Japanese 
were  unmarried  and,  like  young  people  the  world  over, 
were  much  more  interested  in  personal  adornment  than 
in  maintaining  themselves  in  a  comfortable  way.     For 


Standard  of  Living  107 

this  reason  this  particular  element  perhaps  did  not  main- 
tain as  high  a  standard  as  might  be  wished,  but  this  con- 
dition is  rapidly  changed  when  the  younger  Japanese 
settle  down  and  build  a  home  for  themselves. 

A  Typical  Japanese  Home. 

A  visit  to  any  Japanese  home  will  demonstrate  that  the 
Japanese  are  very  cleanly.  Not  only  do  they  keep  their 
surroundings  clean,  but  they  are  exceedingly  clean  in 
person  also.  Perhaps  for  the  same  reason  there  is  very 
^ittle  disease  among  them.  They  do  not  as  a  general 
thing  improve  property  or  build  the  better  class  of  homes. 
This  is  associated  by  the  Anti- Japanese  element  as  an 
indication  of  undesirable  racial  characteristics. 

The  shifting  and  unsettled  nature  of  the  Japanese 
population  is  to  a  great  extent  responsible  for  this.  Most 
American  States  prohibit  them  from  owning  land.  They 
also  were  prohibited  from  leasing  land  for  a  period  of 
over  three  years.  The  recent  legislation  in  California 
prevents  them  from  leasing  land  at  all  for  agricultural 
purposes.  They  are  not  permitted  to  become  naturalized 
citizens  and,  moreover,  there  is  so  much  political  agita- 
tion against  them  year  in  and  year  out  that  they  have  no 
fixed  status. 

There  is  a  high  degree  of  social  prejudice  expressed  in 
various  petty  discriminations  and  legislation,  and  certainly 
no  one  could  expect  a  stable  home  life  to  be  developed 
under  these  circumstances.  Where  limited  tenancy  exists 
it  is  invariably  associated  with  run-down  properties. 
There  is  certainly  no  incentive  for  the  tenant  to  improve, 
and  without  an  incentive  improvement  rarely  is  made. 

In  those  settled  districts,  chiefly  in  and  around  Fresno, 
Cal.,  where  there  are  several  large  Japanese  land  hold- 
ings, the  standard  of  living  is  surprisingly  high  and  at- 
tractive, and  a  typical  Japanese  home  in  these  districts  is 


108  Japanese  in  America 

not  at  all  inferior  to  American  homes.  The  Japanese  are 
found  to  be  omniverous  readers,  both  in  their  own  lan- 
guage and  in  English,  and  library  statistics  show  that  the 
Japanese  are  constant  users  of  books. 

The  Japanese  Diet. 

In  Japan  the  diet  is  greatly  restricted.  Rice  is  the 
staple,  as  it  is  in  all  other  Oriental  countries,  and  this, 
with  vegetables,  fish  and  chicken,  comprises  the  entire 
diet.  The  Japanese  immigrant  upon  arrival  naturally 
limits  himself  to  practically  the  same  things  that  he  con€ 
sumed  in  the  old  country.  In  a  very  short  time,  however, 
he  changes  his  entire  mode  of  living  and  this  is  accom- 
panied by  a  very  great  change  in  diet.  As  his  earning 
power  increases  his  food  consumption  not  only  increases 
but  becomes  more  varied.  There  is  much  to  show  that, 
given  the  same  income,  the  average  Japanese  family  will 
live  on  about  the  same  status  of  any  of  our  better  immi- 
grant peoples,  and  in  many  instances  their  standard  of 
living  is  much  higher. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
Japanese  Language  Schools. 

HPHE  question  of  Japanese  Language  Schools  has  been 
■*-  and  is  the  object  of  a  great  deal  of  agitation.  It 
is  constantly  charged  that  these  schools  are  a  menace  to 
American  ideals  and  institutions,  as  they  retard  the 
Americanization  of  the  immigrant  and  his  children. 

Ground  for  this  charge  is  that  the  schools  are  teach- 
ing not  only  the  Japanese  language  and  customs,  but 
also  the  Japanese  doctrine  of  state  and  religion,  thus 
fostering  their  nationalism. 

As  the  cornerstone  of  American  liberty  is  based  upon 
free  religious  thought,  it  is  unnecessary  to  inquire  as  to 
whether  or  not  Japanese  children  are  taught  Buddhism 
or  the  teachings  of  Confucius  or  any  of  the  Japanese 
philosophies. 

Their  Reason  for  Existence. 

Like  everything  else  in  life,  there  is  a  fundamental 
reason  for  the  existence  of  Japanese  language  schools. 
From    a    strictly    American    standpoint    there    may    be  p 

theoretically  no  defense  to  the  separate  schools  main- y^       Jr^ 
tained  by  many  nationalities  and  one  or  two  religious       (A^ 
creeds,  but  thdOfi  east      ,lL  «  * 

The  Japanese  have  fallfiore  practical  reasons  for 
maintaining  their  separate  Ischools  than  have  most  other 
nationalities.  Primarily  it  is  a  matter  of  teaching  the 
Japanese  language  to  the  children  and  giving  them  at 
least  the  rudiments  of  an  education  in  that  language, 

[109] 


110  Japanese  in  America 

both  oral  and  written.  English  to  the  younger  Japanese 
child  is  comparatively  simple.  He  hears  it  spoken  con- 
stantly on  the  street,  and  he  rapidly  absorbs  it.  By  the 
same  token  he  is  apt  to  forget  his  Japanese  as  quickly. 
Now,  it  must  be  understood  that  the  average  parents, 
unless  they  have  resided  in  America  for  some  time, 
understand  but  very  little  English,  and  they  cannot  write 
it  at  all.  Therefore,  if  the  child  is  to  be  kept  within  the 
family  circle,  it  is  vitally  necessary  that  he  retain  his 
Japanese  and  learn  to  write  it.  A  condition  might  easily 
develop  by  which  the  child  could  not  communicate  with 
his  parents  in  writing.  It  has  also  been  proved  that  the 
family  unit  can  be  easily  disorganized  if  the  child  speaks 
English  and  the  parents  a  different  language.  There  is 
ample  confirmation  of  this  from  the  social  investigating 
committee  which  some  time  ago  undertook  an  investiga- 
tion of  delinquency  among  children  in  Chicago.  There 
is  no  question  at  all  that  the  ideal  condition  would  be  one 
in  which  the  parents  and  the  children  were  fully  versed 
in  English  and  the  necessity  for  the  language  school 
removed,  but  this  is  merely  an  ideal. 

It  is  essential  that  the  children  of  the  second  genera- 
tion be  taught  the  language  of  the  parents.  The  school 
itself  is  simply  of  a  preparatory  nature,  and  the  actual 
teaching  time  is  less  than  two  hours  daily,  except  for 
those  children  who  are  too  young  to  enter  the  American 
schools.  As  the  knowledge  of  English  is  very  limited 
among  the  children  of  pre-school  age,  the  Language 
School  acts  as  a  preparation  to  their  next  step,  that  of 
entering  the  public  schools.  They  are  taught  a  very  rigid 
discipline  and  are  generally  prepared  for  their  school 
life.  Many  of  the  Language  Schools  employ  American 
teachers,  so  that  these  children  may  have  some  knowl- 
edge of  English  before  they  enter  the  public  school. 


Japanese  Language  Schools  111 

The  Educational  Aim. 

The  fundamental  object,  therefore,  of  the  Language 
School  is  to  teach  the  child  to  speak  Japanese  properly, 
to  read  it  at  least  in  a  limited  way,  and  to  write  at  least 
simple  letters.  The  curriculum  is  divided  into  reading, 
writing,  penmanship,  dictation,  and  singing.  No  child 
who  can  understand  and  speak  English  is  admitted  unless 
he  or  she  attends  the  public  school  during  the  regular 
school  periods,  and  no  school  is  graded  higher  than  the 
grammar  grades. 

It  would  seem  from  the  limited  hours  of  instruction 
that  there  would  hardly  be  time  to  impart  much  knowl- 
edge of  Japanese  nationalism.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  there 
is  no  particular  basis  for  this  charge.  Up  to  this  time 
the  text-books  used  in  their  schools  were  imbued  with 
the  spirit  of  the  Japanese  theory  of  state.  Whether  or 
not  this  could  have  any  particular  effect  on  the  child 
remains  to  be  seen.  Whether  or  not  these  text-books 
are  written  for  the  purpose  of  instilling  into  the  child  a 
profound  respect  for  Japanese  institutions  also  remains 
to  be  seen.  During  the  war,  there  was  a  great  deal  of 
criticism  of  American  text-books  on  the  grounds  that 
most  of  them  were  written  by  Germans  and  consequently 
from  the  German  viewpoint.  It  is  possible  that  the 
Japanese  of  this  country  have  suffered  from  a  like  con- 
dition. 

As  early  as  19 13  the  Japanese  Educational  Associa- 
tion announced  as  their  goal,  the  following: 

"The  goal  to  be  obtained  in  our  educational  system  is  to  bring 
up  the  child  who  shall  live  and  die  in  America  in  the  spirit  of  the 
instruction  received  in  the  public  schools  of  America." 

With  this  goal  in  mind  came  the  problem  of  selecting 
adequate  text-books.  As  far  back  as  19 12,  this  problem 
was  taken  up,   and  in   191 5   the  Japanese   Educational 


112  Japanese  in  America 

Association  selected  a  committee  to  supply  adequate  text- 
books. This  meant  that  they  had  to  be  written,  as  there 
were  none  in  existence  except  those  that  had  been  pub- 
lished in  Japan.  The  committee  selected  a  number  of 
books,  but  owing  to  lack  of  funds  were  unable  to  publish 
all  of  them.  In  July,  19 19,  the  General  Conference  of 
the  Japanese  Associations  of  the  Pacific  Coast  met  at 
Seattle,  and  voted  to  establish  an  Educational  Research 
Bureau  and  to  prepare  special  text-books.  This  Confer- 
ence further  resolved  that  the  American  system  of  com- 
pulsory education  is  a  necessity  to  American  citizenship, 
and  that  the  Japanese  be  taught  in  their  language  schools 
only  after  public  school  hours.  This  same  Conference 
also  went  on  record  as  saying  that  the  question  of  the 
continuance  of  the  Language  Schools  needed  very  serious 
consideration  and  that  the  present  text-books  were 
wholly  inadequate  and  should  either  be  revised  or  en- 
tirely rewritten.  All  of  which  demonstrates  an  effort 
on  the  part  of  the  Japanese  themselves  to  avoid  the 
objectionable  features  of  the  Language  Schools. 

Influence  of  the  Japanese  School, 

The  immigrant  group  in  a  new  country  is  of  necessity 
faced  with  two  alternatives  in  the  education  of  their 
children.  They  may  organize  some  institution  as  Lan- 
guage Schools  to  maintain  the  group  communication, 
or  leave  the  group  to  disintegrate.  The  Japanese  chose 
the  former  method.  Perhaps  from  an  American  view- 
point the  Japanese  School  is  objectionable,  but  there  can 
be  no  reason  to  single  out  the  Japanese  for  censure  in 
this  matter,  as  the  Hollanders,  the  Germans,  the  French, 
the  Poles,  and  various  religious  creeds  of  these  nation- 
alities maintain  such  schools.  Just  how  much  influence  the 
Japanese  School  has  upon  the  future  mental  outlook  of 


Japanese  Language  Schools  113 

the  child  is  hard  to  determine,  but  from  the  limited 
curriculum  and  time  given  to  these  subjects  it  cannot  be  a 
great  deal.  The  Japanese  themselves  say  that  they  desire 
their  children  brought  up  in  conformity  with  their  new 
environment;  that  they  desire  them  to  be  inspired  by 
American  ideals  and  to  learn  American  practices  and 
customs.  There  is  absolutely  nothing  to  disprove  this 
except  the  unsupported  statements  of  that  group  that 
are  anti-Japanese,  and  anything  that  the  Japanese  may 
do  or  say  would  come  in  for  criticism  from  this  element, 
and  the  Language  Schools,  of  course,  cannot  escape. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Religious  and   Social  Education  of  the 
Japanese. 

^HE  Japanese  are  frequently  accused  of  being  an 
*  J-  irreligious  people,  and  for  that  reason  unworthy  of 
admittance  into  this  country.  Just  as  frequently  they  are 
deemed  undesirable  because  a  majority  of  them  are 
Buddhists  and  they  bring  to  America  Buddhism. 

Ex-Senator  Phelan  has  emphasized  his  objections  to 
the  Japanese  on  religious  grounds.  He  is  quoted  as  say- 
ing that  there  were  76  Buddhist  temples  in  California, 
regularly  attended  by  emperor  worshipers  who  believe 
that  the  Emperor  is  "Over-Lord"  of  all. 

Mr.  V.  S.  McClatchy  also  voices  objections  to  the 
Japanese  because  of  their  religion. 

The  author  is  unable  to  see  any  relation  between  the 
religious  practices  of  the  Japanese  and  their  desirability 
or  undesirability  so  long  as  these  practices  are  not  essen- 
tially immoral,  and  certainly  no  one  could  contend  that 
adherence  to  either  Shinto  or  Buddha  necessarily  im- 
plies a  lack  of  morals.  Freedom  of  worship  is  funda- 
mental with  the  American  people.  It  is  a  right  incor- 
porated in  the  Constitution,  and  as  a  principle  played  a 
large  part  in  the  settlement  of  America. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  various  religions  subscribed 
to  by  these  people  have  been  made  a  part  of  the  issue,  it 
is  well  to  understand  just  what  they  are.  Ex-Senator 
Phelan  unquestionably  is  confusing  Shintoism  with 
Buddhism,  as  the  teachings  of  Buddha  do  not  prescribe 
emperor  worship,  while  emperor  worship  is  a  tenet  of 
Shinto. 

[114] 


Religious  and  Social  Education  115 

Japanese  Philosophy. 

The  Japanese  are  essentially  an  undevotional  people, 
but  nevertheless  the  two  great  religions  of  the  world, 
Buddhism  and  Christianity,  have  been  accorded  a  measure 
of  hospitality  by  them.  Because  they  are  undevotional 
does  not  imply  that  they  are  immoral.  Although  they 
pray  little,  they  are  bound  in  truly  sacred  bonds  by  filial 
piety — the  religion  of  the  family. 

Shinto  is  purely  Japanese  in  its  origin.  At  best  it  is 
only  a  cult,  a  system  of  worship  in  which  the  deification 
of  heroes,  emperors,  family  ancestors  and  the  forces  of 
nature,  play  an  important  part.  It  has  no  dogma,  no 
sacred  books,  no  moral  code,  no  philosophy  or  code  of 
ethics.  It  simply  prescribes  a  theory  of  human  duty  and 
worship  at  certain  temples  or  shrines  on  sacred  days. 

While  Shinto  is  the  original  Japanese  religion  and 
still  plays  an  exceedingly  important  part  in  their  national 
life,  it  is  not  the  only  cult  subscribed  to. 

The  code  of  ethics  prevailing  in  Feudal  Japan,  and 
whose  influence  is  still  felt,  was  Bushido.  It  was  the 
moral  code  of  Japanese  chivalry,  that  of  the  knight  and 
of  the  gentleman,  and  although  chiefly  Confucian  in  its 
constitution,  it  includes  elements  from  both  Shinto  and 
Buddhism.  Loyalty  and  patriotism  were  received  from 
Shinto  and  fatalism  from  Buddha.  It  is  impossible  to 
account  for  many  of  the  Japanese  peculiarities  without 
some  knowledge  of  Bushido. 

Bushido  emphasized  the  virtues  of  justice,  courage, 
benevolence,  politeness,  veracity,  honor  and  self  control, 
and  one  of  the  most  potent  principles  corresponds  to  what 
we  call  "duty"  or  "the  right."  Although  adopted  by 
limited  numbers  its  influence  is  still  very  powerful  in  de- 
termining the  Japanese  standard  of  conduct. 

The  great  mass  of  the  uneducated  classes  in  Japan  are 


116  Japanese  in  America 

Buddhists  and  the  priests  exert  a  very  strong  influence. 
Buddhism  was  introduced  into  Japan  from  Korea  in  the 
sixth  century,  A.  D.,  and  spread  rapidly.  It  is  now  di- 
vided into  eight  sects,  with  various  sub-sects,  which  bring 
the  grand  total  up  to  about  thirty-five.  The  sects  vary 
both  in  doctrine  and  in  ritual  and  there  is  a  decided  lack 
of  harmony  between  them. 

The  Shin  sect  is  the  most  important,  and  is  frequently 
referred  to  as  the  "Protestantism  of  Buddhism."  It  op- 
poses celibacy  and  asceticism,  does  not  restrict  the  diet, 
worships  only  one  Buddha,  and  preaches  salvation  by 
faith.  Many  careful  observers  are  of  the  opinion  that 
Buddhism  is  gradually  losing  its  hold  in  Japan,  particu- 
larly upon  the  educated, 

The  philosophical  teachings  of  Confucius  have  been 
very  popular  among  the  educated  classes  in  Japan.  These 
classes  in  reality  cared  very  little  for  religion  and  were 
content  to  supplement  Shinto  with  Confucianism. 

The  Five  Relations  around  which  clustered  the  Con- 
fucian Ethical  Code  were  those  of  Father  and  Son,  Ruler 
and  Ruled,  Husband  and  Wife,  Elder  and  Younger 
Brothers,  and  Friends.  Filial  piety,  the  great  virtue  of 
the  First  Relation,  was  the  foundation  of  the  whole 
system  in  China,  but  in  Japanese  Confucianism  this  was 
relegated  to  the  second  place,  and  loyalty — the  great 
virtue  of  the  Second  Relation — was  put  first.  The  scope 
of  this  relation  was  quite  wide.  It  included  not  only  the 
relation  between  the  Sovereign  and  his  subjects,  but  also 
that  between  a  Lord  and  his  retainers,  and  even  that  be- 
tween any  master  and  servant.  The  virtue  of  the  Third 
Relation  was  known  as  "distinction,"  which  practically 
meant  that  each  should  know  and  keep  his  or  her  own 
place.  That  of  the  Fourth  Relation  was  "order,"  which 
insisted  upon  the  primacy  of  seniority  in  age;  and 
between  Friends,  the  typical  virtue  was  "faith"  or  "trust." 


Religious  and  Social  Education  117 

The  Confucian  moral  code  undoubtedly  proved  bene- 
ficial to  Japan  in  many  respects,  although  it  is  now  prac- 
tically superseded  by  the  doctrines  of  Western  atheistic, 
agnostic  and  materialistic  philosophies. 

Social  Education  a  Matter  Also  of  Religion. 

To  understand  the  Japanese  conduct,  it  is  necessary  to 
review  the  principal  religions  or  philosophies  subscribed 
to  by  them.  As  Buddhism  is  the  accepted  faith  of  the 
great  mass  its  influence  in  molding  the  Japanese  character 
has  been  very  great. 

All  education  was  for  centuries  in  Buddhist  hands,  as 
was  the  care  of  the  poor  and  sick,  and  it  could  not  but 
mold  their  character.  It  was  through  Buddhism  also 
that  art  and  medicines  were  introduced,  dramatic  poetry 
created,  and  every  sphere  of  social  and  intellectual  activity 
affected.  In  a  word,  Buddhism  was  the  teacher  under 
whose  instruction  the  Japanese  nation  grew  up. 

The  Japanese  in  their  religion  have  borrowed  ex- 
tensively from  various  faiths.  A  Japanese  Buddhist  may, 
and  frequently  does,  subscribe  to  Shinto  without  at  all 
losing  faith  in  Buddha.  He  simply  adds  to  the  particular 
faith  that  he  has  subscribed  to,  the  practices  of  another. 
He  does  not  draw  the  hard  and  fast  distinctions  with 
which  we  are  familiar. 

The  social  education  of  the  Japanese  has  been  and  is 
to  a  great  extent  today  a  matter  also  of  religion,  and  this 
has  been  effected  not  by  one  faith  alone,  but  by 
Buddhism,  Shinto  and  Bushido,  and  the  teachings  of 
Confucius  as  well. 

Standard  of  Conduct. 

Ex-Senator  Phelan,  if  correctly  quoted,  has  been 
grossly  misinformed  as  to  the  number  of  Buddhist  tem- 
ples in  California.    According  to  the  report  of  the  Head- 


118  Japanese  in  America 

quarters  of  the  Buddhist  Church  in  America,  there  are 
only  25  churches  in  the  Continental  United  States,  but 
because  the  Japanese  population  is  largely  centered  in 
California,  19  of  them  are  located  in  this  state. 

The  membership  of  the  Buddhist  Church  is  about 
8,500,  or  about  10%  of  the  total  Japanese  population  in 
America  subscribe  to  this  faith.  As  Buddhism  is  the 
accepted  faith  of  the  great  mass  of  the  Japanese  people, 
it  is  not  surprising  that  10%  of  the  American  Japanese 
should  retain  their  belief  in  this  religion.  The  Buddhist 
temples,  it  is  true,  are  magnificently  maintained,  and  their 
ritual  is  elaborate.  It  is  equally  true  that  its  followers 
are  chiefly  found  among  the  ignorant  masses,  and  that  to 
some  extent  it  has  degenerated  into  idolatry  and  super- 
stition. 

With  some  10%  of  the  American  Japanese  subscribing 
to  the  Buddhist  faith,  it  is  well  to  look  into  the  religious 
beliefs  of  the  remaining  90%.  Actual  statistics  on  this 
subject  are  exceedingly  meager,  but  it  is  a  fact  that  an  in- 
creasing number  are  embracing  Christianity. 

The  Japanese  immigrant  is  very  apt  to  find  that 
Christian  Missions  play  an  important  part  in  his  life, 
especially  during  the  transition  period.  Following  their 
racial  bent,  the  individuals  who  took  up  mission  work 
did  so  very  thoroughly.  Various  Mission  Stations  have 
been  established  and  this  work  is  being  expanded  at  a 
very  rapid  rate. 

In  191 1  the  Japanese  Interdenominational  Board  of 
Missions  was  organized  to  assist  the  Japanese  immi- 
grant to  meet  the  change  in  his  condition.  Besides  car- 
rying out  effective  Evangelical  work,  this  Association 
has  already  rendered  an  immense  social  service.  It  is 
conducted  under  the  leadership  of  both  Japanese  and 
American  Christians  and  the  Christianization  of  the  im- 
migrants has  been  given  impetus. 


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Religions  and  Social  Education  119 


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A  Young  Women's  Christian  Association  has  also  been 
organized  for  the  benefit  of  Japanese  women,  and  a 
Japanese  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  is  in  process 
of  organization.  This  particular  Board  has  been  most 
active  in  child  welfare  and  temperance  work,  especially  in 
the  rural  districts,  and  has  given  a  good  deal  of  attention 
to  supplying  books  and  educational  works,  both  religious 
and  otherwise.  It  has  been  of  value  in  collecting  statis- 
tical data  concerning  the  Japanese  in  this  country,  and  is 
now  branching  out  to  do  a  like  work  among  the  Japanese 
in  South  America. 

As  a  result  of  the  statistical  work  of  this  Board,  com- 
prehensive data  on  the  Christianization  of  the  Japanese 
has  been  obtained.  On  the  Pacific  Coast  of  the  United 
States  there  are  now  61  Protestant  churches  with  a  mem- 
bership of  3,198,  and  57  Sunday  Schools  with  a  total 
enrollment  of  2,772.  There  are  also  several  Japanese 
Catholic  churches. 

The  Japanese  community  at  Livingston,  California,  is 
the  largest  and  strongest  Christian  community,  and  in 
this  particular  section  there  has  been  less  evidence  of 
racial  prejudice  than  in  any  other  section  of  California. 
It  has  also  been  remarkably  successful  from  an  economic 
viewpoint.  The  Japanese  have  also  had  a  great  deal  of 
success  in  Salvation  Army  work,  and  some  time  ago  the 
American  Japanese  were  visited  by  Colonel  G.  Yama- 
muro,  the  leader  of  the  Salvation  Army  in  Japan.  Dur- 
ing his  visit  an  aggregate  audience  of  14,500  was 
addressed  at  the  various  meetings  held  by  him,  and  nearly 
a  thousand  conversions  were  made. 

Whether  or  not  the  Christianization  influence  will  have 
any  effect  upon  the  Japanese  standard  of  conduct  is  a 
question.  Japanese  ethical  standards  have  been  created 
largely  through  borrowing  from  various  religions  and 
there  is  a  serious  doubt  as  to   whether  or  not  those 


120  Japanese  in  America 

Japanese  who  espouse  Christianity  will  make  it  their 
sole  religion.  There  are  undoubtedly  thousands  of 
Japanese  who  can  readily  accept  Christianity  by  simply 
adding  the  image  of  Jesus  to  their  present  collection, 
giving  it  equal  honors  with  Buddha  and  their  ancestors. 
They  might  easily  include  Jehovah  in  their  pantheon,  but 
they  find  difficulty  in  appreciating  the  intolerance  of 
Christians  in  having  "no  other  gods  before  Jehovah." 

The  author  has  previously  stated  that  in  his  opinion 
the  question  of  religion  does  not  enter  into  the  present 
Japanese  problem  at  all,  but  the  fact  that  a  majority  of 
the  Japanese  are  not  Christians  has  been  an  argument  of 
the  Anti- Japanese  faction,  and  it  is  true  that  the  Japanese 
who  have  resided  in  America  for  any  length  of  time  look 
with  favor  upon  Christianity  and  gradually  embrace  it. 

The    Rafiid    Assimilation    of    the    Principles    of    American 
Conduct, 

Laying  aside  the  question  of  religious  practices,  the 
question  becomes  one  of  whether  or  not  the  Japanese 
readily  assimilate  the  fundamental  principles  of  American 
conduct.  If  they  do,  then  their  religious  convictions  are 
not  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  There  is  plenty  of 
evidence  to  show  that  after  the  individual  immigrant  has 
had  the  necessary  period  to  adjust  himself  he  rapidly 
assimilates  American  standards  and  conducts  himself  in 
accordance  with  them. 


CHAPTER  X. 
Assimilation. 

^TOW  we  come  to  the  most  important  phase  of  the 
**  Japanese  problem,  —  namely,  the  question  of 
assimilation. 

Perhaps  the  strongest  contention  of  the  Anti- 
Japanese  element  is  that  these  people  are  incapable  of 
assimilation.  It  is  the  constant  subject  of  press  comment 
and  amounts  almost  to  a  political  gospel  to  that  faction 
who  have  injected  the  Japanese  question  into  California 
politics. 

To  understand  this  question  it  is  necessary  to  arrive  at 
an  accurate  definition  of  the  word  "Assimilation." 
Assimilation  is  defined  in  standard  dictionaries  as  "the 
act  of  appropriating  so  as  to  incorporate  into  itself,  or 
that  process  by  which  one  is  brought  into  resemblance, 
harmony,  conformity  or  identity  with  regard  to  the 
others." 

Politically  speaking,  assimilation  means  that  process 
by  which  an  alien  people  are  taught  to  adopt  the  customs, 
practices  and  mode  of  living  prevalent  in  the  country  in 
which  they  reside.  "In  other  words,  to  assimilate  the 
Japanese,  they  must  be  encouraged  to  adopt  the  social, 
political  and  industrial  ways  of  the  American  people. 
They  should  further  be  taught  American  ideals  and 
gradually  be  brought  to  observe  the  American  standard 
of  ethics  and  to  abide  by  the  legal  and  political  processes 
prevailing  in  the  United  States. 

This,  it  is  urged,  is  in  the  nature  of  things,  an  impossi- 
bility. Mr.  V.  S.  McClatchy,  who  has  been  very  active 
in  fighting  the  Japanese,   some  time  ago  testified  that 

121 


122  Japanese  in  America 

(after  enumerating  the  good  qualities  of  the  Japanese 
people)  "they  are  non-assimilable.  They  do  not  inter- 
marry and  we  do  not  want  them  to  intermarry.  The 
Japanese  is  always  a  Japanese.',  Mr.  McClatchy  then 
based  assimilation  upon  the  biological  question  of  inter- 
marriage. We  have  in  the  United  States  some  ten 
million  negroes  today.  The  author  has  never  heard  of 
anyone  advocating  intermarriage.  Equally  he  has  never 
heard  of  anyone  contending  that  the  negro  could  not  be 
or  has  not  been  assimilated.  Assimilation  is  not  and 
never  will  be  a  biological  matter.  It  is  purely  a  question 
of  the  individual  alien  adapting  himself  to  his 
environment. 

Senator  Phelan  is  an  exponent  of  the  same  theory. 
The  Senator  has  summed  up  his  objections  to  the 
Japanese  in  the  following: 

"If  there  were  any  way  to  put  them  on  an  equality  in  all 
respects,  we  would  do  it.  It  is  an  economic  proposition  because  the 
race  is  non-assimilable,  and  we  can  never  have  that  equality.  It 
is  our  duty  to  exclude  the  Japanese  for  economic  reasons.  Their 
competition  is  deadly  and  their  non-assimilability  established. 
Hitherto,  the  Japanese  have  objected  to  this  discrimination,  but 
God  made  them  so,  and  it  is  the  nature  of  things.  If  we  were  to 
swallow  them  and  could  assimilate  them  in  an  American  community, 
it  would  be  well  and  good,  but  we  cannot  do  this.  They,  there- 
fore, should  not  complain  except  against  the  decree  of  nature." 

t 

Here  we  find  another  phase  of  the  argument,  but  this 
time  as  an  economic  proposition.  Senator  Phelan  de- 
clares that  their  non-assimilability  is  established.  He 
does  not  state  by  whom.  It  is  not  unnatural,  therefore, 
to  assume  that  this  non-assimilability  has  been  established 
only  in  his  own  mind.  However,  to  prove  that  the 
Japanese  cannot  be  absorbed  requires  a  very  much 
broader  proof  than  this  simple  assertion.  It  is  not  diffi- 
cult for  an  individual  desiring  to  prove  this  contention 


A  ssimilatio  n  123 

to  assert  that  it  has  been  proved,  but  it  does  not  establish 
it  as  a  fact. 

There  is  plenty  of  evidence  that  the  Japanese  possess 
the  mental  qualities  that  will  enable  them  to  eventually 
conform  to  the  American  environment.  Assimilation  is, 
after  all,  relative,  and  a  perfect  assimilation  can  only  be 
accomplished  by  time.  A  perfect  assimilation  is  not  re- 
quired of  any  other  immigrant  except  as  the  succeeding 
generations  lose  all  contact  with  their  old  environment 
and  become  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  ideas  and  ideals 
of  the  new.  It  would  not  be  required  of  the  Japanese  if 
they  were  to  receive  the  same  treatment  and  were  viewed 
in  the  same  light  as  are  other  immigrants. 

The  contention  that  the  Creator  made  the  two  races 
different,  and  different  they  will  remain,  is  also  subject 
to  further  proof.  If  the  difference  in  color  is  the  cri- 
terion, then  unquestionably  the  senator  is  correct.  It 
has  generally  been  thought  that  under  the  educational, 
social  and  political  conditions  now  existing  in  America, 
the  habits  of  living,  ways  of  thinking  and  mode  of  con- 
duct of  the  European  immigrant  at  least  has  gradually 
changed. 

As  a  biological  fact,  the  investigations  of  Mr.  Franz 
Boas,  of  Columbia  University,  has  proved  that  certain 
bodily  changes  are  made, — such  as  the  height  and  weight, 
the  cephalic  index,  the  color  of  the  hair,  etc.  There  is 
only  a  limited  evidence  that  these  physical  changes  will 
take  place  in  the  Japanese  immigrants.  However,  certain 
observers  have  found  that  their  hair  has  become  a  lighter 
shade  and  is  gradually  losing  its  jet  black  appearance, 
that  the  pigment  of  the  skin  is  also  changing  and  lighten- 
ing, and  it  is  a  well  known  fact  that  the  second  gener- 
ation of  Japanese  do  gain  enormously  in  height  and 
weight. 

There  has  not  been  a  sufficient  lapse  of  time  nor  has 


124  Japanese  in  America 

the  subject  been  investigated  far  enough  to  establish 
scientific  conclusions,  but  there  are  actual  cases  and  cer- 
tain observations  have  determined  the  tendency  of  these 
bodily  changes.  However,  it  seems  to  the  author  that 
assimilation  is  not  and  cannot  be  a  biological  matter,  but 
that  the  whole  question  of  assimilation  simmers  down  to 
whether  or  not  the  Japanese  mental  outlook  and  thought 
processes  can  be  changed  in  conformity  with  the  pre- 
vailing mental  attitude  of  those  around  them.  Assimila- 
tion, therefore,  becomes  a  matter  of  culture  rather  than  a 
matter  of  physical  difference. 

A  comparison  of  two  charts,  one  furnished  by  the 
Children's  Bureau  of  the  Department  of  Labor,  and  one 
by  the  Japanese  Educational  Association  of  America, 
serves  to  demonstrate  the  rapid  physical  improvement 
in  American-born  Japanese,  over  children  of  like  ages 
born  in  Japan.  Unquestionably  the  favorable  increase 
in  weight  and  height  of  American-born  children  is  some- 
what due  to  improvement  of  diet,  but  it  is  also  a  striking 
evidence  of  the  gradual  bodily  change  taking  place  in 
the  younger  generations.  Just  how  far  this  improve- 
ment will  go,  or  whether  it  will  be  continued  at  all  in 
future  generations,  it  is  not  possible  at  this  time  to  say. 
The  tests  made  so  far,  however,  seem  fairly  accurate. 
The  figures  relative  to  the  Japanese  children  in  Japan 
were  based  upon  the  result  of  the  investigation  of  the 
Education  Department  of  the  City  of  Tokio,  Japan. 
Further  investigations  are  being  made,  and  will  be 
interesting  to  follow. 

Conditions  in  Hawaii, 

To  determine  the  assimilability  or  non-assimilability  of 
the  Japanese  it  is  well  to  review  conditions  in  those  sec- 


Assimilation  125 

tions  where  the  Japanese  population  is  the  largest. 
Hawaii  is  frequently  pointed  to  as  being  in  grave  danger 
because  of  the  preponderant  element  of  Japanese  in  her 
population.  Somewhat  more  than  half  of  the  population 
of  Hawaii  was  at  the  last  census  Japanese,  and  this 
population  is  increasing  at  a  rapid  rate. 

There  are  certain  very  well  advised  objections  to  the 
Japanese  in  Hawaii,  but  the  Islands  have  been  free  from 
political  propaganda  and  the  influence  of  the  anti- Japanese 
press,  and  facts  are  more  easily  obtainable.  There  are 
also  very  fundamental  reasons  for  this  large  Japanese 
population. 

The  commerce  of  the  Islands  is  largely  composed  of 
agricultural  products,  principally  sugar  and  pineapples. 
As  both  of  these  products  require  a  vast  amount  of  hand 
labor,  the  Japanese  fit  in  well  economically.  The  climate 
is  also  very  much  to  their  liking,  and  being  an  island 
people,  the  physical  environment  is  one  that  they  enjoy. 
There  has  been  no  question  as  to  the  assimilation  of  the 
Japanese  in  Hawaii.  The  only  objection  to  them  is  that 
they  are  gradually  dominating  the  economic  situation, 
purely  through  increased  numbers.  The  Japanese  in 
Hawaii  have  gotten  along  very  well  with  their  white 
neighbors.  They  are,  as  a  whole,  well  liked,  and  the 
question  of  loyalty  or  assimilation  has  not  been  made. 
In  fact  the  second  generation  has  been  thoroughly 
amalgamated. 

His  Grasfa  of  American  Commercial  Practices, 

It  is  a  necessary  part  of  assimilation  to  teach  any  immi- 
grant people  the  prevalent  commercial  practices.  The 
first  thing  that  the  immigrant  comes  in  contact  with  is 
American  business,  in  some  form  or  another.  He  usually 
arrives  with  the  theory  that  money  is  easily  made  in 


126  Japanese  in  America 

America.  This  impression  is  due  to  the  American  repu- 
tation for  lavishness  in  personal  expenditures,  and  the 
difference  in  the  economic  scale  and  wealth  of  the  nation 
as  compared  with  his. 

They  rapidly  learn  American  ways  of  selling,  and  this 
added  to  their  natural  industry  starts  them  upon  the  road 
to  commercial  success. 

It  has  long  been  contended  that  the  Japanese  are  com- 
mercially dishonest,  that  they  do  not  keep  contracts,  and 
that  their  word  is  valueless.  Now,  it  is  perfectly  true  that 
the  Japanese  upon  his  arrival  has  a  very  different  con- 
ception of  business  relations  than  the  average  American. 
He  is  a  natural  bargainer.  He  knows,  when  purchasing 
an  article,  that  the  Japanese  who  sells  it  to  him  will  over- 
estimate its  value  to  him  on  quality.  He  therefore  strives 
for  a  lower  price.  This,  of  course,  is  very  distasteful  to 
the  American  business  man,  who  is  not  as  a  usual  thing 
given  to  bargaining,  particularly  in  small  matters.  The 
Japanese  can  hardly  be  condemned  for  this,  as  in  reality 
it  is  an  indication  of  thrift  and  a  quality  that  is  greatly 
admired  in  the  French  and  Germans. 

As  a  salesman,  the  Japanese  attempts  to  get  the  best 
possible  price,  but  expects  that  his  customer  will  not  pay 
his  first  asking  price,  and  he  therefore  reduces  it  to  one 
that  he  expects  to  receive.  In  this  way  he  has  in  some 
instances  created  a  bad  impression. 

Then  the  Japanese  experience  with  American  business 
has  not  always  been  one  to  inspire  confidence  and  lofty 
idealism,  particularly  in  the  keeping  of  contracts.  It  is 
a  well  established  fact  that  some  American  firms  suffer 
no  anxiety  over  broken  contracts  in  the  foreign  trade 
field.  This  the  Japanese  assumes  is  a  custom  of  Amer- 
ican business  and  he  acts  accordingly  in  self-protection. 
However,  there  is  little  criticism  of  the  Japanese  who  has 
established  himself  in  business  here  for  any  length  of 


Assimilation  127 

time.     He  invariably  learns  the  practices  prevailing  and 
adapts  himself  to  them,  and  abides  by  the  customs. 

The  following  quotation  from  "A  History  of  the 
Japanese  People,"  by  Captain  Brinkley,  published  by  the 
Encyclopedia  Britannica  does  a  great  deal  to  explain  the 
Japanese  views  of  American  business  methods,  as  they  are 
brought  in  contact  with  them  directly  by  residence  in 
their  country: 

"The  first  foreign  business  men  did  not  present  themselves  to 
Japan  in  a  very  lovely  light.  Their  demeanor  was  marked  by  all 
the  arrogance  habitually  shown  by  the  Occidental  towards  the 
Oriental  and  they  approached  the  solution  of  the  Japanese  problem 
with  a  degree  of  suspicion  which  could  not  fail  to  be  extremely 
irksome  to  this  proud  nation.  Even  the  foreign  representatives 
made  it  their  habit  to  seek  for  trickery  and  abuse  in  all  Japanese 
doings,  official  or  private,  and  this  display  did  not  tend  to  con- 
ciliate the  Japanese." 

This  first  experience  of  the  Japanese  with  foreign  busi- 
ness determined  to  a  great  extent  his  viewpoint  for  a  long 
period. 

The  Desire  to  Learn  English, 

Probably  the  first  desire  expressed  by  the  Japanese  im- 
migrant other  than  his  wish  to  obtain  employment  is  to 
learn  English.  This  is  one  of  his  best  characteristics. 
He  desires  first  and  foremost  to  learn  the  language  of  the 
country,  and  having  learned  the  language,  the  process  of 
Americanization  is  comparatively  simple.  Most  of  the 
troubles  created  by  the  alien  element  in  this  country  have 
been  due  to  ignorance  through  their  lack  of  understand- 
ing of  the  language  spoken.  In  this  the  Japanese  rapidly 
ceases  to  be  an  offender. 

If  a  method  of  acquainting  himself  with  the  language 
is  at  hand,  he  will  spend  infinite  time  and  patience  in 
learning  it.    The  second  generation  invariably  speaks  and 


128  Japanese  in  America 

writes  English  well  after  the  twelfth  year,  and  with  a 
knowledge  of  the  language  as  a  start,  assimilation  is  not 
at  all  a  difficult  matter. 

Restrictions  to  Japanese  Operate  Against  Assimilation, 

The  Japanese  are  constantly  charged  with  being  non- 
assimilable and  this  charge  is  unsupported  by  fact.  On 
the  other  hand,  however,  everything  is  done  to  prevent 
their  assimilation.  With  the  mass  of  Anti-Japanese 
propaganda  and  the  efforts  at  restrictive  legislation,  it  is 
a  surprising  thing  that  the  Japanese  attempt  to  conform 
to  their  environment  at  all.  They  have  every  reason  to 
believe  that  they  are  unwelcome  and  are  being  dis- 
criminated against.  This  discrimination  is  made  only 
by  a  small  class  of  people,  but  there  is  no  one  fighting  for 
the  Japanese,  and  no  voice  is  lifted  in  their  behalf.  Con- 
sequently, it  is  not  unnatural  for  the  majority  of  them  to 
assume  that  they  are  being  treated  with  scant  respect. 
In  some  instances  they  have  been  denied  even  the 
smallest  of  social  courtesies. 

The  City  of  Los  Angeles  recently  enacted  an  ordinance 
prohibiting  Japanese  players  from  public  tennis  courts. 
This  particularly  stupid  and  petty  legislation  and  its 
kind  cannot  help  but  hamper  their  assimilation. 

Assimilation  Rather  Than  Amalgamation, 

It  is  not  contended  that  the  Japanese  will  be  amal- 
gamated with  the  Caucasian  element.  That  would  entail 
intermarriage,  and  while  there  are  no  particular  biological 
reasons  why  intermarriage  should  not  be  practiced,  it  is 
not  advocated  by  either  race. 

Assimilation  for  all  practical  purposes  means  the 
Americanization  of  the  Japanese,  and  this  has  been  done. 
It  is  perhaps  unfair  to  draw  conclusions  from  individual 


A  ssimilation  1 29 

cases,  but  it  is  impossible  to  review  all  of  the  cases. 
Therefore  the  author  can  only  give  a  few  examples  of 
Japanese  who  have  become  Americanized  in  every  sense 
of  the  word. 

Mr.  Masasuke  Kobayaski,  who  is  now  leading  the  work 
of  the  Japanese  Salvation  Army  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  is 
fairly  representative  of  the  change  from  immigrant  to 
citizen. 

With  a  limited  education  in  Japan  and  some  business 
experience,  he  came  to  America  in  1902.  Before  leaving 
Japan  he  was  converted  to  Christianity  and  was  an  ardent 
admirer  of  Unimura  Kanzo,  the  Editor  of  the  Bible 
Study.  He  studied  for  some  time  at  Stanford  University 
and  then  took  a  position  with  an  industrial  concern  at 
Salt  Lake  City.  Brought  into  contact  with  the  Japanese 
laborers  and  their  problems,  he  decided  to  take  up  re- 
ligious work.  He  has  since  devoted  himself  to  various 
forms  of  social  service  work  and  in  19 18  became  the 
head  of  the  Japanese  Salvation  Army  on  the  Pacific 
Coast. 

Anyone  who  is  at  all  familiar  with  the  second  gener- 
ation of  Japanese,  realizes  that  their  ideas  and  ideals  are 
largely  American.  While  the  conversion  may  not  be 
complete,  it  is  well  on  its  way,  and  that  would  seem  to  be 
enough  to  expect  of  the  second  generation  of  any  immi- 
grant people. 

The  spirit  of  democracy  which  is  rising  in  Japan  is  due 
very  largely  to  the  political  ideas  implanted  in  the  Amer- ' 
ican-born  Japanese  who  has  returned  to  the  mother  coun- 
try. Their  mode  of  living  and  their  entire  philosophy  of 
life  has  to  a  large  extent  been  changed.  So  far,  even  the 
enemies  of  the  Japanese  have  not  criticized  the  part 
played  by  them  in  the  last  war.  A  great  many  of  them 
served  in  the  American  Army,  and  this  despite  the  fact 
that  they  are  not  citizens.     They  did  their  full  share  in 


130  Japanese  in  America 

subscribing  to  Liberty  Loans  and  the  Red  Cross,  and  in 
every  way  fulfilled  a  citizen's  duty,  and  this  is  a  great 
deal  more  than  can  be  said  of  some  other  nationalities 
living  in  America  during  the  war. 

The  Japanese  in  their  history  have  shown  that  they  are 
assimilable.  How  can  the  change  from  feudal  Japan  to 
a  modern  power  in  the  last  sixty-six  years  be  possibly  ex- 
plained except  by  their  adaptability,  and  adaptability  is 
almost  synonymous  with  assimilability. 

The  contention  that  they  are  non-assimilable  is  simply 
raised  as  an  anti- Japanese  argument.  It  is  primarily 
based  upon  the  ingrained  belief  of  the  Caucasian  that 
they  will  and  can  assimilate  all  other  races  but  will  not 
be  assimilated  by  others.  If  the  barriers  that  operate 
against  assimilation  could  be  removed,  the  Japanese  would 
prove  themselves  readily  assimilable. 

The  question  really  is,  whether  or  not  the  Japanese 
are  desirable  people,  and  whether  we  are  willing  to  assim- 
ilate them.  Even  the  leading  proponents  of  anti- 
Japanese  legislation  admit  that  these  people  possess  some 
very  sterling  qualities. 

Mr.  V.  S.  McClatchy  testified  before  the  House  Com- 
mittee on  Immigration  and  Naturalization,  that  the 
Japanese  is  sober  and  industrious,  generally  law  abiding, 
that  he  has  respect  for  his  superiors  and  parents,  and  so 
far  as  the  police  records  show,  the  cities  have  little  trouble 
with  him.  He  is  industrious,  will  work  long  hours  for 
little  pay  if  necessary,  and  co-operates  willingly,  but  the 
objection  to  him  is  that  he  cannot  be  assimilated. 

Senator  Phelan  has  also  stated : 

"We  admire  their  Japanese  industry  and  cleverness,  but  it  is 
for  that  very  reason,  being  a  masterful  people,  that  they  are  most 
dangerous.  Because  the  Chinese  are  not  a  masterful  race  and 
are  far  fore  tractable  and  willing  to  work  for  wages,  I  far  prefer 
the  Chinese  to  the  Japanese." 


A  ssimilation  131 

Recently  a  powerful  Pacific  Coast  daily  said  editorially : 
"The  objection  to  Japanese  immigration  is  not  from  any  un- 
friendly feeling  or  an  assumption  of  superiority.  The  Japanese, 
however,  have  the  abliity  and  willingness  to  do  hard  work,  which 
the  American  race  has  lost,  and  for  that  reason  they  are  dangerous." 
Now  if  the  Japanese  possess  these  admirable  qualities, 
which  even  their  antagonists  say  they  do,  and  possess  the 
type  of  mind  which  can  be  taught  to  think  and  conform 
to  its  new  environment,  assimilation  is  perfectly  simple, 
and  the  contention  that  they  lack  assimilability  falls,  as  do 
many  of  the  other  arguments  against  the  Japanese. 


CHAPTER  XL 
Intermarriage . 

CLOSELY  connected  with  the  question  of  assimilation 
is  that  of  intermarriage,  and  both  are  gravely  mis- 
understood, and  have  been  the  subjects  of  unceasing 
propaganda. 

Objections  to  the  Japanese  have  been  registered  on  the 
grounds  that  they  do  not  intermarry  and  therefore  can- 
not be  assimilated.  Those  Japanese  who  have  married 
into  the  white  race  have  been  severely  criticized  for  so 
doing,  both  by  the  whites  and  their  own  people. 

While  the  author  does  not  feel  that  intermarriage  is 
necessary  to  assimilation,  and  it  is  not  required  of  any 
other  immigrant  people,  the  failure  of  a  majority  of 
Japanese  to  intermarry  with  the  whites  is  frequently  held 
to  be  one  reason  that  prohibits  their  ultimate  Amer- 
icanization. 

It  is  well  to  analyze  these  objections  and  to  point  out 
the  reasons  underlying  them.  Intermarriage  is  not  advo- 
cated by  either  the  whites  or  the  Japanese.  Irrespective 
of  any  other  consideration  the  difference  in  color  makes  it 
impractical.  The  white  race  has  never  laid  aside  its  color 
prejudice  and  the  Japanese,  on  the  contrary,  feel  that  they 
have  equal  grounds  for  prejudice. 

Intermarriage  has  no  part  in  assimilation.  These  im- 
migrant people  who  have  settled  here  in  numbers  have 
usually  intermarried,  particularly  the  second  and  third 
generations.  The  first  generation,  however,  has  invari- 
ably married  within  its  own  race.  The  Japanese  have  not 
had  as  long  an  experience  in  America  as  the  Spanish,  the 
Italians   or  the   Russians,   and  it  is   impossible  to   say 

132 


Intermarriage  133 

whether  or  not  the  second  and  third  generations  will  or 
will  not  intermarry.  It  is,  however,  unlikely,  simply  be- 
cause of  the  color  prejudice. 

If  intermarriage  had  been  widely  practiced,  unques- 
tionably it  would  furnish  a  better  basis  for  complete 
assimilation,  but  certainly  it  cannot  be  contended  that  in- 
termarriage is  a  condition  precedent  to  assimilation. 

As  a  Biological  Hatter. 

From  a  biological  standpoint  intermarriage  is  not  only 
practical,  but  it  might  be  beneficial.  Eminent  biologists 
have  advanced  the  theory  that  if  the  stronger  nations  of 
the  world  could  be  melted,  the  composite  of  all  of  them 
would  be  a  highly  developed  human  being,  and  that  it  is 
perfectly  possible  that  this  composite  could  inherit  the 
best  characteristics  of  the  various  races. 

In  the  Eastern  part  of  the  United  States  a  majority  of 
the  Japanese  have  married  white  women.  In  the  Western 
and  Pacific  States,  because  of  the  agitation  against  it, 
these  marriages  have  not  been  as  numerous.  The  result 
of  these  intermarriages  does  not  show  a  lack  of  pro- 
ductivity as  has  been  frequently  alleged,  and  the  offspring 
observed  have  been  normal  in  every  respect.  It  has  also 
been  observed  that  the  offspring  from  those  inter-racial 
marriages  are  invariably  more  Caucasian  than  Oriental. 
The  color  is  more  white  than  yellow  and  the  facial  char- 
acteristics Caucasian  with  the  exception  of  the  slant  eyes, 
which  invariably  persist.  As  a  biological  matter,  there- 
fore, there  is  absolutely  nothing  to  show  that  intermar- 
riage would  be  detrimental  to  either  race,  and  the  theory 
has  been  advanced  by  authorities  that  it  might  be  a 
decided  benefit  to  both. 

Some  Successful  Intermarriages. 

From  a  sociological  standpoint  the  question  of  inter- 
marriage becomes  one  of  racial  prejudice.     The  general 


134  Japanese  in  America 

attitude  towards  the  Japanese  is  such  that  they  are  not 
free  to  intermarry.  There  have  been  and  are  legislative 
restrictions  prohibiting  it  in  many  States  and  with  these 
restrictions  and  the  adverse  social  attitude,  intermarriages 
cannot  be  frequent. 

In  the  Eastern  States,  however,  there  have  been  many 
successful  intermarriages.  In  the  Middle  West,  Chicago 
particularly  has  furnished  more  inter-racial  marriages 
among  the  Japanese  than  ordinary  marriages,  while  in 
the  East  this  proportion  is  also  very  large,  especially  in 
New  York  City.  The  fact  that  the  right  of  naturalization 
is  also  denied  has  had  a  tendency  to  curb  intermarriage. 
Several  of  the  very  influential  Japanese  in  this  country 
are  married  to  white  women,  and  there  is  absolutely 
nothing  to  show  that  these  marriages  are  not  entirely 
successful.  The  success  or  failure  of  an  individual  mar- 
riage is  decidedly  difficult  to  determine,  but  there  are 
few,  if  any,  divorces  in  intermarriages  and  there  are  also 
many  excellent  reasons  for  considering  them  successful. 

It  is  equally  true  that  white  men  frequently  marry 
Japanese  women  in  Japan.  The  same  restrictions,  how- 
ever, that  operate  against  the  inter-racial  marriage  in  this 
country  operates  against  them  also  in  Japan,  only  the 
objections  are  reversed, — it  being  the  Japanese  who  do 
not  favor  them. 

Not  Advocated  by  the  Japanese, 

Inter-racial  marriage  is  not  advocated  by  the  Japanese 
any  more  than  it  is  by  the  whites.  The  Japanese  objec- 
tions, however,  are  based  upon  wholly  different  grounds 
than  those  registered  by  the  whites.  The  Caucasian  ob- 
jection is  due  almost  wholly  to  a  color  prejudice;  the 
Japanese  objection  is  largely  due  to  the  difference  in 
social  customs. 

The  Japanese  view  themselves  in  a  very  different  light 


Intermarriage  135 

than  they  are  viewed.  They  believe  most  thoroughly  in 
themselves,  feel  that  they  are  the  equal  of  the  members 
of  any  other  race  in  the  world,  and  are  willing  to  prove  it. 
They  will  gladly  enter  any  field  of  endeavor  and  by  sheer 
force  of  ability,  either  inherent  or  acquired,  fight  their 
way  to  the  top.  They  have  some  characteristics  that  can- 
not help  but  make  for  success,  among  them — industry  and 
patience — and  they  cannot  possibly  see  why  with  all  their 
good  qualities  there  should  be  a  prejudice  against  them 
on  purely  color  grounds. 

This  prejudice  has  always  existed  with  the  Caucasian 
and  unquestionably  does  operate  against  a  full  under- 
standing of  the  desires  and  character  of  other  races. 
There  perhaps  could  be  a  fairer  attitude  in  treating  the 
question  of  intermarriage.  It  has  no  relation  to  that  of 
immigration.  It  is  a  personal  matter,  not  a  group  matter, 
and  probably  cannot  be  stopped  by  either  propaganda  or 
legislation.  It  is  not  advocated  by  the  Japanese  and  per- 
haps may  never  be.  There  is  no  opposition  to  the  inter- 
marriage of  other  nationalities,  nor  to  their  mating  with 
purely  American  stock,  and  the  subject  of  intermarriage 
should  not  be  confused  with  any  other  phase  of  the 
Japanese  problem. 

The  Difference  in  Social  Customs, 

If  there  are  no  biological  obstacles  and  the  feasibility 
of  this  type  of  intermarriage  is  proved,  there  is  still 
the  difference  in  social  customs  to  operate  as  a  barrier. 
The  status  of  women  is  viewed  by  the  Japanese  in  an 
entirely  different  manner  than  by  the  white.  The  feudal 
attitude  towards  her  still  prevails  to  an  unfortunate  ex- 
tent in  even  modern  Japan.  There  is  evidence  that  Japan 
is  changing  in  this  viewpoint,  as  well  as  in  many  others, 
but  the  change  is  not  sufficient  as  yet  to  permit  an  abso- 
lute agreement  in  social  customs. 


136  Japanese  in  America 

The  question  of  immigration  and  the  whole  question  of 
the  treatment  of  the  so-called  Japanese  problem  should 
not  be  hampered  by  anything  so  ambiguous  as  intermar- 
riage. As  it  is  advocated  by  neither  the  Japanese  nor  the 
white,  it  will  not  be  practiced  to  any  great  extent  ana  has 
no  part  in  their  assimilation. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
Americanization  of  the  Japanese. 

'T^HE  principal  argument  of  the  Anti- Japanese  faction 
■*■  is  that  the  Japanese  cannot  be  naturalized  and 
Americanized.  This  is  also  the  basis  of  most  of  the  press 
propaganda,  but  when  boiled  down  there  is  very  little, 
if  any,  proof  furnished. 

The  Japanese  in  America  operate  under  distinct  disad- 
vantages in  so  far  as  their  ultimate  Americanization  is 
concerned.  They  are  denied  the  rights  of  naturalization, 
and  therefore  there  is  no  incentive  for  them  to  under- 
stand and  adapt  themselves  to  American  institutions  and 
practices. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  any  people  who  are  denied 
the  rights  of  citizenship  cannot  be  intensely  interested 
in  fitting  themselves  for  it.  No  one  has  ever  advanced  the 
argument  that  the  Japanese  were  unfitted  mentally  to 
comprehend  the  things  that  would  qualify  them  as  citi- 
zens. No  American  agency  has  ever  interested  itself  in 
spreading  the  principles  of  American  life  among  this  alien 
people  and  such  work  as  has  been  done  has  been  almost 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Japanese  themselves.  They 
have  had  no  incentive  to  take  up  this  class  of  work,  but 
apparently  the  directors  of  the  Japanese  Association  and 
the  various  other  agencies  have  realized  that  if  they  were 
so  fitted,  it  would  do  a  great  deal  to  destroy  the  force  of 
the  propaganda  against  them. 

That  the  Japanese  will  always  remain  Japanese  is 
utterly  absurd.  Many  of  them  have  a  better  grasp  of 
American  ideals  than  the  average  American  and  most  of 
them  who  have  had  the  benefit  of  any  education  at  all  are 

[137] 


138  Japanese  in  America 

as  well  equipped  for  citizenship  as  any  other  class  of  immi- 
grants. It  must  be  kept  in  mind,  of  course,  that  it  is 
only  recently  that  the  Japanese  have  come  to  this  coun- 
try at  all  and  that  the  first  who  did  come  were  not 
permanent  settlers. 

Americanization  Agencies. 

Just  what  work  has  been  accomplished  can  not  be  fully 
understood  without  a  review  of  the  agencies  that  have 
carried  it  on.  In  the  early  days,  the  Christian  missions 
were  the  only  centers  where  the  Japanese  were  brought 
in  touch  with  Occidental  civilization  at  all. 

The  practical  side  of  teaching  the  English  language 
was  employed  by  these  mission  workers,  and  the  young 
men  especially  became  identified  with  this  mission  work. 
As  they  became  able  to  understand  English  many  of  them 
remained  as  interpreters  and  were  sent  out  into  other 
districts  and  in  that  way  the  field  was  constantly  en- 
larged. As  these  Missions  were  established  and  sup- 
ported largely  by  American  churches,  the  Japanese  who 
came  to  these  organizations  were  in  contact  with  the  best 
class  of  Americans. 

It  does  not  seem  unreasonable  to  assume  that  with  this 
environment  they  could  not  help  but  absorb  many  of  the 
principles  underlying  what  we  term  Americanization. 
These  Missions  are  still  contributing  their  part  to  this 
class  of  work,  but  owing  to  the  constant  propaganda  and 
the  feeling  of  antipathy  that  has  arisen  in  California 
against  them,  they  are  seriously  handicapped,  and  to  the 
Japanese  themselves  is  left  practically  this  entire  work. 

These  Mission  Schools,  although  not  strong  either 
financially  or  in  numbers,  have  devoted  such  capacity  as 
they  have  to  English  instruction  and  other  subjects  re- 
lating to  American  life.  Through  them,  many  of  the 
mature  Japanese  students  have  been  able  to  enter  the 


Americanization  of  the  Japanese  139 

high  schools  and  colleges  of  this  country  and  thus  obtain 
a  thorough  education. 

An  example  of  this  class  of  school  is  furnished  by 
that  established  and  conducted  by  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  of  San  Francisco  for  the  last  two  decades. 
This  institution  has  been  teaching  the  Japanese  English 
and  various  other  subjects  necessary  to  them  in  this,  their 
new  home.  The  school  has  at  present  eight  classes  and 
128  day  students.  The  night  school  has  about  60 
students,  of  which  about  one-fourth  are  women.  For  the 
primary  grades  a  four-year  course  of  study  in  the  day 
school  is  required  and  a  certificate  from  this  school  ad- 
mits the  graduate  to  the  high  schools.  The  membership 
in  proportion  to  the  Japanese  population  is  exceedingly 
large  and  this  demonstrates  conclusively  that  the 
Japanese  are  more  than  anxious  to  fit  themselves  for  a 
larger  life  in  America. 

In  any  other  alien  people  this  evidence  would  be  con- 
sidered a  demonstration  of  the  qualities  that  make  for 
the  best  citizenship,  but  in  the  Japanese  it  is  looked  upon 
with  suspicion.  Besides  these  Mission  Schools  and 
private  instructors  there  are  a  number  of  kindergartens 
for  the  Japanese  children.  These  kindergartens  employ 
in  the  great  majority  of  cases  American  teachers  and  as 
soon  as  the  children  have  sufficient  knowledge  of  English 
to  warrant  it,  they  are  sent  to  the  public  schools.  This 
preparatory  work  is  not  only  beneficial  to  the  Japanese 
child,  but  also  to  the  parents.  If  the  child  understands 
and  speaks  English  and  is  in  constant  association  with 
the  parents  it  assists  the  parents  to  also  understand  this 
language. 

Other  institutions  which  are  carrying  on  this  work  are 
the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  and  the  Young 
Women's  Christian  Association.  Both  have  established 
classes  for  the  younger  Japanese  and  classes  in  citizen- 


140  Japanese  in  America 

ship  are  particularly  large.  The  Y.  W.  C.  A.  some  time 
ago  organized  an  International  Institute  for  Foreign 
Women  and  this  has  been  of  immense  value  to  the 
Japanese  woman. 

Because  of  the  difference  in  social  customs  it  is  difficult 
for  the  Japanese  woman  to  adjust  herself  to  her  new  en- 
vironment without  being  brought  in  direct  contact  with 
American  ways  and  manners  of  life.  To  accomplish  this 
purpose  dormitories  have  been  provided  by  this  Associa- 
tion and  there  are  several  centers  in  California  where 
English  and  household  practices  are  taught. 

The  Boards  of  Education  in  some  of  the  larger  cities 
of  America  have  become  interested  and  opened  centers 
where  Japanese  women  are  taught  domestic  science  and 
various  allied  subjects. 

Now  the  purpose  of  all  of  these  various  agencies  is 
intensely  practical,  i.  e.,  to  give  knowledge  of  conver- 
sational English.  It  is  absolutely  essential  that  any 
immigrant  should  understand  the  English  language  be- 
fore he  can  be  properly  assimilated.  He  should  also  know 
how  to  read  and  write  it,  and  this  instruction  is  empha- 
sized. They  are  also  taught  practical  things  that  will  fit 
them  for  employment,  or  in  the  case  of  the  women,  to 
improve  their  way  of  living.  Throughout  the  enfire 
training,  American  institutions  and  practices  are  studied, 
and  in  this  way  only  can  they  be  Americanized. 

The  Japanese  are  very  adaptable.  They  learn  quickly 
and  if  an  agency  has  proved  its  merit  they  are  quick  to 
adapt  it  to  their  use.  An  example  of  this  is  the  Japanese 
Boy  Scout  troops.  These  troops  worked  throughout  the 
war  in  securing  Liberty  Bond  subscriptions,  planting  and 
caring  for  war  gardens,  securing  Red  Cross  contributions, 
and  in  every  way  did  exactly  the  same  kind  of  work  as 
the  American  Boy  Scouts.     There  are  also  various  pub- 


Americanization  of  the  Japanese  141 

lications  which  are  issued  both  in  Japanese  and  English 
and  are  doing  their  share  toward  this  work. 

Americanization  Impossible  Under  Constant  Harassment. 

Despite  the  fact  that  there  are  some  splendid  agencies 
working  to  aid  the  Japanese  in  understanding  American 
customs,  there  cannot  be  complete  Americanization  of 
these  people  if  they  are  constantly  harassed  by  restrictive 
legislation.  If  the  attitude  so  prevalent  in  California 
at  present  is  continued  the  Japanese  can  never  become 
Americanized. 

No  people  can  be  constantly  harassed  and  be  the  sub- 
ject of  insults  and  vilification  and  at  the  same  time  be 
trained  to  citizenship.  The  Japanese  are  making  every 
effort  to  conform  to  their  new  surroundings.  They  are 
most  anxious  to  learn  and  are  more  than  anxious  to 
observe  the  customs  of  the  country.  The  help  they  are 
given  is  extremely  limited  and  a  malicious  propaganda 
constantly  conducted  against  them  in  the  press.  The 
people  of  California  as  a  whole  do  not  dislike  the 
Japanese.  Quite  the  contrary,  they  like  them,  but  only 
as  day  laborers  working  for  a  small  wage  for  a  white 
farmer.  They,  therefore,  are  not  interested  in  teaching 
them  anything  which  would  improve  either  their  social 
or  economic  status. 

Lack  of  Influence  of  the  Imperial  Government. 

It  has  been  frequently  asserted  that  all  of  the  Japanese 
activities  in  this  country  are  directed  by  the  Imperial 
Government  at  Tokio.  This  amounts  simply  to  an  un- 
supported assertion.  Never  has  a  scintilla  of  proof 
been  offered  that  would  tend  to  support  this  statement, 
and  there  is  much  to  show  that  the  Imperial  Government 
would  be  delighted  if  all  of  the  American  Japanese  would 


142  Japanese  in  America 

emigrate    to    some    place    where    they    would   be    more 
hospitably  received. 

The  California  question  must  have  been  a  constant 
source  of  annoyance  at  Tokio,  and  as  the  problems  are 
solved  by  the  Government  in  Tokio  a  new  one  grows 
because  of  the  attitude  of  a  limited  number  of 
Californians. 

The  Individual  Japanese  Desire  for  Harmony  Between  the 
Two  Countries, 

When  any  new  problem  arises  between  the  two  coun- 
tries, the  individual  Japanese  in  this  country  does  his  ut- 
most to  bring  about  a  friendly  understanding.  For  this 
reason  he  is  often  misunderstood. 

He  takes  a  very  active  interest  in  any  discussion  be- 
tween the  two  countries,  which  is  entirely  natural.  He 
is  denied  the  right  of  naturalization  here  and  therefore 
must  look  to  the  Mother  Country  for  protection  of  his 
rights.  The  average  Japanese  has  acquired  by  the 
hardest  of  hard  work  some  little  property  and  he  wants 
this  protected.  Legislation  is  constantly  being  either 
passed  or  proposed  affecting  his  property  rights,  and  he 
is  naturally  intensely  interested.  He  strongly  desires 
harmony  between  the  two  countries  so  that  he  may  work 
out  his  individual  salvation  without  legislative  inter- 
ference. 

The  Desire  for  Economic  Independence. 

The  primary  motive  of  the  individual  Japanese  is  the 
desire  to  make  himself  economically  independent.  In  the 
old  country  his  opportunities  for  economic  betterment 
have  been  exceedingly  limited  and  in  his  new  environment 
he  finds  vast  quantities  of  almost  virgin  land  which  will 
respond  to  his  labor.     He  therefore  is  willing  to  work 


Americanization  of  the  Japanese  143 

and  work  hard  for  success,  and  if  let  alone  he  invariably 
achieves  it.  He  will  stand  a  very  great  deal  to  achieve 
this  end,  but  cannot  understand  why,  if  he  is  willing  to 
work  and  willing  to  adapt  himself  to  his  new  surround- 
ings, he  should  not  be  freed  from  these  restrictions  and 
permitted  the  same  opportunities  that  any  other  immi- 
grant is  given. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  religious  organizations, 
no  effort  has  as  yet  been  made  on  the  part  of  the 
Americans  to  assist  him.  He  realizes  that  an  understand- 
ing of  American  life  is  necessary,  and  has,  with  his  char- 
acteristic energy,  tried  to  organize  agencies  that  would 
provide  it. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
Japanese  Citizenship. 

r 

"/^NCE  a  Japanese  always  a  Japanese,"  is  a  favorite 
^^  slogan  of  the  Anti- Japanese  element.  It  has  even 
been  stated  that  Japan  does  not  permit  her  citizens  to 
expatriate,  and  that  she  has  never  given  her  consent  to 
those  individuals  who  have  indicated  a  desire  to  renounce 
their  allegiance  to  the  Mikado. 

It  has  been  the  principal  argument  against  further 
Japanese  immigration  and  is  freely  used  in  any  discussion 
relative  to  their  acquiring  citizenship  in  America. 

The  allegation  that  the  Japanese  Government  does  not 
permit  her  subjects  to  be  expatriated  and  absolved  from 
allegiance  to  the  Emperor  has  no  ground  in  fact. 

The  following  extracts  from  the  191 6  Law  of  Na- 
tionality which  is  now  in  force  in  Japan  provides : 

"Article  18.  When  a  Japanese,  by  becoming  the  wife  of  a 
foreigner  has  acquired  the  husband's  nationality,  then  such  Japanese 
loses   (her)  Japanese  nationality. 

"Article  20.  A  person  who  has  voluntarily  acquired  a  foreign 
nationality  loses  Japanese  nationality. 

"Article  20  Bis.  In  case  a  Japanese  subject  who  has  acquired 
foreign  nationality  by  reason  of  his  or  her  birth  in  a  foreign  coun- 
try has  domicile  in  that  country  he  or  she  may  be  expatriated  with 
the  permission  of  the  Minister  of  State  for  Home  Affairs. 

"The  application  for  the  permission  referred  to  in  the  preceding 
paragraph  shall  be  made  by  the  legal  representative  in  case  the 
person  to  be  expatriated  is  younger  than  fifteen  years  of  age.  If 
the  person  in  question  is  a  minor  above  fifteen  years  of  age,  or  a 
person  adjudged  incompetent,  the  application  can  only  be  made 
with  the  consent  of  his  or  her  legal  representative  or  guardian. 

"A  stepfather,  a  stepmother,  a  legal  mother  or  a  guardian,  may 

[144] 


Japanese  Citizenship  145 

not  make  the  application  or  give  the  consent  prescribed  in  the  pre- 
ceding paragraph  without  the  consent  of  the  family  council. 

"A  person  who  has  been  expatriated  loses  Japanese  nationality. 

"Article  23.  A  Japanese  child  who,  through  legal  procedure,  has 
acquired  a  foreign  nationality,  loses  Japanese  nationality. 

"Article  24.  A  male  above  the  full  age  of  seventeen  or  more 
does  not  lose  Japanese  nationality  under  the  provisions  of  the  pre- 
ceding six  articles  until  he  shall  have  served  in  the  army,  navy  or 
otherwise  he  has  no  obligation  thereto." 

These  provisions  clearly  show  that  the  Japanese  Gov- 
ernment does  in  fact  permit  her  subjects  to  be  expatriated, 
although  under  certain  restrictions.  The  provisions  of 
Article  20  are  especially  applicable  to  the  case  of  the 
American  Japanese. 

These  Laws  of  Nationality,  it  is  true,  rest  upon  the 
principle  that  the  Japanese  soldier  is  not  relieved  of 
military  duty  by  expatriating  himself.  This  provision  of 
the  Law  of  Nationality  was  unquestionably  adopted 
because  of  the  influence  of  the  military  element  in  Japan, 
but  it  is  equally  clear  that  a  Japanese  boy  who  has 
acquired  foreign  nationality  by  reason  of  birth  in  the 
original  country  that  nationality  is  acquired  in,  may  divest 
himself  of  his  Japanese  citizenship  if  his  father  or  other 
parental  authority  takes  the  necessary  steps  for  him  be- 
fore he  is  15  years  of  age.  If  he  has  attained  the  age  of 
15,  he  may  take  the  same  steps  with  the  consent  of  his 
father  or  other  parental  authority  until  he  reaches  the 
age  of  17. 

Dual  Citizenship, 

An  American-born  Japanese  is  a  citizen  jure  soli  of  the 
United  States  of  America  under  the  14th  Amendment 
to  the  Constitution.  At  the  same  time  he  is  a  citizen  of 
Japan  jure  sanguinis  under  the  Japanese  Laws  of  Na- 
tionality. Through  this  dual  citizenship  has  arisen  the 
much  discussed  question  of  dual  allegiance,  and  out  of  it 


146  Japanese  in  America 

grew  the  charge  that  a  "Japanese  is  always  a  Japanese," 
wherever  he  may  have  been  born. 

The  Japanese  provision  is  "that  a  child  is  a  Japanese 
if  his  or  her  father  is  a  Japanese  at  the  time  of  his  or  her 
birth."  From  this  also  grew  the  allegation  that  the 
Japanese  Government  never  desires  her  subjects  to  be  ex- 
patriated, and  has  political  and  military  control  over  the 
American-born  Japanese  through  the  legal  provisions  of 
dual  citizenship. 

Unquestionably  dual  citizenship  carries  with  it  many 
awkward  situations  and  has  been  the  basis  for  much  of 
the  propaganda  against  these  people.  The  Japanese  are 
certainly  not  alone  in  this,  as  many  other  governments 
have  exactly  the  same  provisions,  and  the  question  is  not 
even  discussed.  It  is  simply  seized  upon  as  an  effective 
source  of  propaganda. 

Dual  Citizenship  of  Other  Nationals. 

The  German  Nationality  Law  of  19 13  provided  that 
"German  citizenship  is  not  lost  by  a  German  who  has, 
before  acquiring  foreign  citizenship,  secured  from  the 
competent  authorities  of  his  home  State,  the  written  per- 
mission to  retain  his  original  citizenship."  Thus  the 
German  National  is  in  exactly  the  same  position  as  the 
Japanese.  He  may  or  may  not  retain  his  German  citizen- 
ship, depending  entirely  upon  the  individual's  option,  and 
citizenship  in  this  case  carries  with  it  also  the  responsi- 
bility of  military  service. 

The  French  Civil  Code  also  provides  that  "Every 
person  born  of  a  Frenchman,  in  France  or  abroad,  is  a 
Frenchman."  It  is  therefore  apparent  that  the  Japanese 
are  not  the  only  race  affected  by  dual  citizenship  and  it  is 
manifestly  unfair  to  single  them  out  and  penalize  them 
because  of  a  dual  citizenship  with  which  they  may  or  may 
not  be  in  sympathy. 


Japanese  Citizenship  147 

Dual  Citizenship  in  Practice, 

The  important  element  to  consider  in  the  working  out 
of  dual  citizenship  is  the  attitude  taken  toward  it  by  the 
individual  American-born  Japanese.  If  he  or  she  en- 
dorses this  political  provision,  then  it  may  affect  his  or 
her  allegiance  to  this  country.  It  is  an  awkward 
political  question  and  there  is  nothing  that  can  be  said  in 
favor  of  a  continuance  of  it,  not  only  in  Japan,  but  in 
every  other  country. 

The  individual  Japanese,  however,  cannot  be  blamed 
for  this  practice  unless  they  subscribe  to  and  approve  of 
it.  The  Japanese  residents  in  America  have  been  cog- 
nizant of  this  fact  and  the  Japanese  Association  has  done 
everything  possible  to  terminate  this  dual  nationality. 

As  early  as  19 15  the  General  Conference  of  the 
Japanese  Association  resolved  to  encourage  the  jure  soli 
allegiance  to  America  among  the  American-born  Japanese 
and  to  take  advantage  of  the  available  means  to  terminate 
the  jure  sanguinis  allegiance  to  Japan.  Again  at  the 
General  Conference  in  1920  it  was  resolved  that  the 
Association  should  use  every  possible  influence  to  prevail 
upon  its  membership  to  drop  the  Japanese  citizenship 
where  possible. 

It  would  not  be  surprising  if  the  American  Japanese 
were  slow  in  taking  advantage  of  this  right  of  expatri- 
ation. The  Japanese  immigrant  is  denied  the  right  of 
nationalization  and  if  he  should  bring  his  children  up  as 
American  citizens  the  dilemma  is  obvious.  The  parent 
would  still  retain  his  allegiance  to  the  mother  country  and 
the  child  would  be  an  American  citizen.  The  restrictions 
and  constant  propaganda  against  them  has  also  operated 
to  force  a  great  many  of  them  to  return  to  Japan. 

It  cannot  be  expected  that  they  can  be  socially  ostracized 
and  harassed  by  legislation  that  curbs  their  every  activity 


148  Japanese  in  America 

and  still  become  fully  in  sympathy  with  their  new 
surroundings. 

There  is  every  indication  that  if  left  alone  the  Japanese 
would  avail  themselves  of  the  expatriation  provisions  of 
their  Law  of  Nationality  and  surrender  the  Japanese 
citizenship.  Many  of  them  have  already  done  this  in 
spite  of  the  barriers  and  obstacles  placed  in  their  way, 
but  until  they  are  hospitably  received  and  decently  treated 
by  the  white  element  they  will  still  retain  their  old  coun- 
try ties.  It  is  the  opinion  of  authorities  that  the  Japanese 
in  America  have  shown  their  willingness  to  adopt  the 
single  citizenship  despite  these  limitations  and  restrictions. 
If  they  were  permitted  the  right  of  naturalization  it  can 
be  presumed  that  the  Japanese  Government  would  co- 
operate in  terminating  dual  nationality. 

An  important  phase  of  this  question  is  the  liability 
to  Japanese  military  service  of  the  Japanese  in  this  coun- 
try. In  Japan  military  service  is  compulsory  to  every 
male  of  proper  age  and  physical  condition.  At  the  age 
of  17  he  is  enrolled  in  the  Register  of  the  Japanese  Na- 
tional Army  and  called  to  service  either  in  the  Army  or 
in  the  Navy  at  twenty.  However,  an  exemption  or  de- 
layed service,  which  results  ultimately  in  exemption,  is 
legally  granted  to  any  Japanese  residing  in  a  foreign 
country  other  than  China,  providing  the  individual  makes 
a  claim,  properly  accompanied  by  a  certificate  of  his  resi- 
dence, made  out  by  the  nearest  Japanese  Consul.  When 
he  is  over  the  age  of  27  he  is  entirely  exempt  from  any 
military  service  even  though  claiming  exemption,  unless 
there  be  an  extraordinary  occasion  therefor.  Those  who 
have  served  the  required  years  in  the  Army  before  emi- 
grating to  foreign  countries  may  be  exempt  from  any 
subsequent  duties  if  they  properly  claim  it.  A  majority 
of  young  Japanese  men  in  this  country,  according  to  the 
statistics  of  the  Japanese  Association,  not  only  are  not 


Japanese  Citizenship  149 

reservists,  but  have  claimed  exemption  from  compulsory- 
service.  This  entirely  dissipates  the  allegation  that 
nearly  all  of  the  Japanese  male  residents  of  America  are 
military  reservists,  prepared  for  any  crisis.  Then  again 
a  large  percentage  of  Japanese  born  in  this  country  have 
never  been  registered  in  Japan.  They  are,  therefore, 
immune  to  any  Japanese  laws  and  the  Japanese  Govern- 
ment has  no  power  over  them  whatsoever.  They  are 
American  citizens.  If,  however,  the  Japanese  youth  was 
enrolled  at  17  in  the  Register  of  the  Japanese  National 
Army  it  creates  a  complicated  situation,  for  the  Japanese 
law,  like  the  laws  of  Continental  Europe  and  unlike  the 
English  and  American  system,  are  cognizant  of  allegiance 
to  the  sovereign  by  reason  of  blood  descent,  and  the  place 
of  birth  cannot  affect  this  allegiance. 

The  provisions  of  the  National  Law  of  Japan  are  per- 
haps not  broad  enough  to  meet  the  American  view,  but 
expatriation  is  permitted  before  the  age  of  14  or  17  at  the 
latest.  Then  if  he  be  registered  in  Japan,  he  still  is  per- 
mitted to  claim  exemption  from  actual  military  service. 

There  is  every  evidence  to  show  that  the  Japanese- 
American  would  in  the  majority  of  cases  desire  to  hold 
the  single  American  citizenship.  There  are  many  obsta- 
cles that  deter  them  from  this,  but  the  tendency  is  shown 
by  many  of  them  who  have  already  renounced  their 
allegiance  to  Japan,  and  all  of  their  Associations  are 
advocating  this  single  nationality  in  order  to  avoid  any 
possible  friction. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
Conclusions. 

npHE  Japanese  question  in  its  broadest  sense  is  no 
■*■  longer  a  section  matter,  but  rather  a  national,  and 
perhaps  international  problem.  In  its  conception  a 
strictly  local  affair,  this  problem  has  grown  to  its  present 
international  proportions  solely  through  the  hostility  of 
the  political  element  of  California  and  the  bigotry  of  a 
section  of  the  American  press. 

There  are  the  best  of  reasons  for  friendship  existing 
between  the  two  nations.  The  best  minds  in  Japan  desire 
American  friendship  more  today  than  ever.  Politically 
Japan  is  going  through  a  transition  period  in  which  the 
power  of  the  military  element  is  being  gradually  wrested 
by  the  democratic  forces.  The  tide  of  democracy  is 
gradually  sweeping  Prussianism  from  the  Island  Empire, 
and  it  is  because  of  this  that  Japan  needs  the  co-operation 
of  the  world's  largest  and  most  successful  democracy. 

California  Legislation. 

The  restrictive  legislation  that  has  been  adopted  at 
various  times  by  the  State  of  California  to  prevent  land 
holdings  by  the  Japanese  alien  has  been  of  unprecedented 
severity.  In  November,  1920,  an  initiative  measure  was 
adopted  which  not  only  strengthened  the  original  alien 
land  law,  but  made  many  of  its  provisions  more  drastic. 
Not  only  is  the  Japanese  alien  prohibited  from  owning  or 
leasing  land,  but  his  only  status,  at  least  insofar  as  land 
is  concerned,  is  that  of  a  laborer.  He  cannot,  because 
he  is  prohibited  by  legislation,  secure  land  either  by  lease 
or  ownership.      He  can  only  work  for  a  white  employer. 

[1501 


Conclusions  151 

The  practical  working  out  of  this  Act  is  a  matter  of 
time.  Many  sections  of  the  State  of  California  desire 
the  Japanese  farmer.  All  of  the  liberal  sentiment  in 
California  was  opposed  to  this  Act.  The  only  problem 
that  exists  in  this  state,  or  any  other,  insofar  as  the 
Japanese  are  concerned,  is  simply  the  need  for  a  limitation 
on  immigration,  and  this  problem  could  be  solved  very 
easily  if  it  were  not  for  the  complicated  issues  that  have 
arisen  as  the  result  of  the  Anti- Japanese  proganda. 

The  legislation  that  the  State  of  California  has  adopted 
is  of  unheard-of  severity. 

The  Japanese  Entitled  to  Consideration. 

The  author  has  attempted,  in  the  limited  space  avail- 
able, to  place  before  the  public  the  exact  facts  with  refer- 
ence to  the  Japanese  themselves,  their  problems,  and  their 
worth  as  residents  in  this  country. 

There  are  the  best  of  historical  reasons  for  the  past 
friendship  existing  between  these  two  nations.  It  was  an 
American,  Commodore  Perry,  who  forcibly  compelled 
Japan  to  open  her  ports  to  the  world,  although  she  wished 
to  remain  a  hermit  among  the  nations.  It  was  an  Amer- 
ican, Townsend  Harris,  first  of  the  American  diplomatic 
force,  who  whole-heartedly  helped  the  Japanese  Govern- 
ment with  its  various  problems  during  this  transition 
period,  thus  establishing  the  tradition  of  warm  friend- 
ship which  has  been  established  and  never  been  strained 
until  the  California  school  episode. 

In  the  66  years  of  commercial  and  diplomatic  inter- 
course between  the  two  countries  there  has  never  been  an 
incident  or  disagreement  between  the  two  countries  that 
has  not  been  promptly  and  amicably  settled.  Many  of 
America's  great  statesmen  have  paid  the  highest  compli- 
ments to  Japanese  diplomacy.      Mr.  Root,  who  perhaps 


152  Japanese  in  America 

handled  American  diplomatic  problems  as  well  as  any 
man  who  has  ever  held  the  office  of  Secretary  of  State, 
has  publicly  paid  his  tribute  to  Japanese  diplomacy.  Mr. 
Roosevelt  has  done  the  same.  The  Japanese  position,  on 
every  problem  which  has  arisen  between  the  two  nations, 
has  been  one  of  sympathetic  understanding.  She  has 
done  her  best,  and  that  frequently  in  the  face  of  abuse 
and  intolerance  from  a  section  of  the  American  press,  to 
effect  a  friendly  settlement. 

Representative  Californian  opinion  is  not  and  never  has 
been  in  sympathy  with  the  restrictive  measures  adopted 
in  that  state,  and  the  propaganda  against  the  Japanese. 
The  better  class  of  opinion  has  always  held  that  the  only 
problem  that  existed  was  with  reference  to  restricted 
immigration,  and  this  is  held  to  be,  what  it  properly  is,  a 
Federal  problem,  and  not  a  State  matter. 

The  Japanese  are  our  best  Oriental  customers.  Their 
trade  has  been  increasing  the  last  ten  years  by  leaps  and 
bounds,  and  is  an  exceedingly  important  factor  in  our 
overseas  commerce.  The  constant  agitation  against  them 
in  California  has  operated,  to  some  extent,  against  the 
development  of  this  trade.  Every  activity  of  the  Jap- 
anese has  been  criticised,  held  up  to  ridicule,  and  pointed 
out  to  be  a  menace  to  the  country. 

The  Japanese  Association  of  America  has  been  par- 
ticularly criticised.  This  association  is,  in  fact,  what  its 
name  implies — simply  an  association  of  Japanese,  organ- 
ized originally  for  social  purposes  only,  but  latterly  exert- 
ing its  helpfulness  towards  its  members.  It  is  not  only  a 
benefit  to  its  Japanese  members,  but  a  very  great  benefit 
to  the  American  people  as  well.  The  association  early 
realized  that  if  the  propaganda  against  their  people  was 
to  be  combated,  it  was  necessary  that  the  Japanese  im- 
migrants be  Americanized  and  imbued  with  the  ideals  of 
their  new  home.     The  association  has  aggressively  gone 


Conclusions  153 

about  doing  this  work.  It  has  had  to  play  a  lone  hand. 
No  American  association  has  extended  any  help  to  the 
Japanese  immigrant  with  the  exception  of  a  few  religious 
organizations. 

The  theory  advanced  that  this  association  is  in  any  way 
supported  by  the  Imperial  Government  of  Japan,  is  an 
absolute  fallacy. 

As  the  vital  statistics  of  the  Japanese  population  in 
California  have  been  the  basis  for  a  great  deal  of  un- 
friendly press  comment,  it  is  well  to  review  all  the 
elements  before  forming  a  conclusion  on  this  particular 
subject. 

Now  it  is  a  fact  that  the  Japanese  population  in  Cali- 
fornia has  shown,  from  a  percentage  basis,  an  exceedingly 
large  increase,  but  the  total  population  at  the  end  of  19 19 
was  only  87,279.  It  is  utterly  absurd  to  assume  that 
87,279  can  in  any  way  affect  the  industrial  or  economic 
status  of  that  State.  The  varied  and  wild  estimates  that 
have  been  made  by  Mr.  Hearst's  papers,  Senator  Phelan 
and  others,  are  probably  exaggerated.  Perfectly  accurate 
statistics  are  available  from  the  State  Board  of  Control, 
and  it  can  be  assumed  that  these  statistics  are  correct. 

Admitting  the  increase,  it  is  still  necessary  to  explain 
it.  It  can  be  and  is  readily  explained.  The  greatest 
increases  have  occurred  since  the  year  191 1.  At  that  time 
a  large  majority  of  the  Japanese  in  California  were  men 
of  a  marriageable  age.  From  191 1  on  they  have  been 
marrying.  Japanese  women  have  been  coming  in,  and 
with  the  establishment  of  families,  of  course,  children 
have  been  born. 

It  is  equally  absurd  to  say  that  the  Japanese  population 
has  increased  six-fold  during  the  last  twenty  years,  as 
the  population  in  1910  was  about  40,000  and  in  1920  was 
only  120,000  throughout  the  whole  United  States.  It  is 
equally  unfair  to  compare  the  birth  rate  among  these 


154  Japanese  in  America 

people  with  that  of  the  white  element  as  a  whole.  If 
people  of  identical  intelligence,  age  groups  and  social 
environment  could  be  compared,  the  Japanese  birth  rate 
would  not  be  any  greater  than  that  of  the  group  selected, 
but  this  is  not  done.  Among  all  of  our  immigrant  people 
the  birth  rate  is  high  and  there  is  no  particular  reason 
to  single  the  Japanese  out  for  criticism.  As  they  become 
amalgamated  and  perhaps  assimilated,  this  condition 
readily  changes.  The  second  generation  of  Japanese  in 
this  country  do  not  show  as  high  a  birth  rate  as  the  first 
generation. 

There  is  nothing  alarming  about  the  birth  rate  of  these 
people  in  California.  The  population  has  increased, 
and  probably  will,  but  the  population  of  the  entire  State 
has  increased  ioo  per  cent  in  the  time  that  the  Japanese 
population  has  increased  some  150  per  cent,  and  there 
are  most  excellent  reasons  for  this  increase. 

The  question  of  birth  rate  is  not  any  part  of  the  Jap- 
anese problem,  and  should  not  be  taken  into  consideration. 

It  is  equally  untrue  that  the  Japanese  are  willing  to 
work  long  hours  for  low  wages.  Those  Japanese  who 
come  here  possess  the  racial  traits  of  industry  and  per- 
severance that  characterize  them  as  a  nation.  They  do 
apply  themselves,  and  this  is  normally  thought  to  be  a 
most  excellent  attribute.  In  certain  specific  industries  the 
Japanese  work  long  hours,  not  because  they  desire  to, 
but  because  the  type  of  produce  handled  demands  it. 
The  American  farmer  does  the  same  thing  and  nothing 
is  thought  of  it. 

Actual  comparisons  of  the  wages  received  demonstrate 
conclusively  that  the  Japanese  laborers  in  agricultural 
occupations  receive  higher  wages  than  do  white  laborers 
in  the  same  occupation  as  unskilled  laborers.  In  the 
skilled  trades  the  reverse  is  true.  The  Japanese  as  a 
class  have  not  had  sufficient  training  to  become  skilled  in 


Conclusions  155 

any  but  a  few  occupations  and  this  explains  the  differ- 
ence. There  are  isolated  cases  where  perhaps  an  indi- 
vidual Japanese  has  been  willing  to  work  for  a  lower 
than  standard  wage  for  the  same  class  of  employment, 
but  taken  as  a  whole  they  demand  and  actually  receive, 
as  unskilled  agricultural  laborers,  at  least,  better  pay  than 
the  white  doing  the  same  work. 

They  are  charged  with  not  observing  Sundays.  As  it 
is  an  entirely  individual  matter,  this  charge  has  no  bear- 
ing on  the  problem,  but  those  Japanese  who  have  been 
some  time  in  the  country  are  quite  faithful  in  observing 
this  day  of  rest  except  in  those  occupations  that  demand 
constant  attention,  particularly  berries  and  vegetable 
gardening.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Japanese  should  be 
encouraged  in  their  industry  and  perseverance,  and  these 
racial  traits  should  not  be  used  against  them. 

Their  standard  of  living,  which  is  so  frequently  criti- 
cised, is  a  matter  of  economics,  and  not  due  to  a  racial 
tendency.  In  the  old  environment  a  low  standard  of 
living  was  forced  upon  them,  due  to  the  unequal  distri- 
bution of  wealth  and  the  restricted  economic  opportuni- 
ties in  Japan.  It  is  a  proved  fact,  however,  that  they  are 
as  quick  to  raise  their  standard  of  living  when  their  earn- 
ing power  permits,  as  are  any  other  immigrant  people. 
In  those  districts  where  they  have  had  time  to  accumulate 
wealth  they  have  shown  a  tendency  to  adopt  a  normal 
American  standard  in  food,  clothing  and  the  necessities, 
and  in  self-improvement;  possibly,  they  show  a  greater 
desire  than  the  average  American.  It  is  manifestly  un- 
fair to  compare  the  immigrant  Japanese  with  the  white 
element  of  the  better  class.  If  any  comparison  is  made 
at  all,  they  should  be  compared  with  a  like  class  of  im- 
migrants. 

There  is  a  most  excellent  reason  for  the  establishment 
of  the  language  schools.      The  Japanese  child  must  first 


156  Japanese  in  America 

learn  English  before  he  or  she  can  be  placed  in  the  public 
schools.  It  certainly  is  not  advisable  that  the  child's 
education  should  stop  during  the  time  that  English  is 
being  learned,  and  the  language  school  therefore  fills  a 
real  need.  It  is  in  many  instances  imperative  that  the 
child  speak  Japanese  as  well  as  English,  and  perhaps  read 
and  write  it,  because  this  is  the  only  language,  either  writ- 
ten or  spoken,  of  the  parents.  Certainly  no  one  would 
advocate  that  the  child  know  English  only  and  the  parent 
Japanese. 

The  charge  that  the  language  schools  are  promoting 
the  Oriental  theory  of  government  is  a  pure  fabrication. 
There  is  neither  time  nor  a  desire  to  promote  this  study. 
The  religious  teachings  of  the  child  cannot  be  taken  into 
consideration  at  all,  as  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  provides  for  free  religious  thought,  and  it  is  a 
fundamental  of  American  life.  Other  nationals  main- 
tain their  own  language  schools  without  being  criticised, 
and  to  single  out  the  Japanese  is  manifestly  unfair. 

Perhaps  from  an  American  viewpoint  there  is  no  room 
in  theory  at  least,  for  any  language  school.  The  Japanese 
themselves  have  been  very  quick  to  realize  that  the  abol- 
ishment of  the  schools  would  tend  to  eliminate  criticism. 
They  have  taken  steps  through  their  general  association 
to  bring  this  about. 

In  the  religious  and  social  education  of  these  people, 
charges  are  frequently  made  that  a  majority  of  them  are 
Buddhists.  That  is  their  right.  The  religious  convic- 
tions of  the  individual  Japanese  ought  not  to  subject  him 
to  criticism,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact,  that  charge  is  untrue. 
The  Japanese  are  ready  converts  to  Christianity,  and 
some  of  the  best  influences  at  work  among  them  come 
from  their  own  Christian  organizations. 

Much  has  been  said  on  the  -subject  of  assimilation.  If 
assimilation   simply   means   an   adjustment   to   the   new 


Conclusions  157 

conditions  and  adaptation  to  the  social,  political,  indus- 
trial and  cultural  institutions,  both  traditional  and  actual, 
of  this  country,  then  the  Japanese  are  as  easily  assimi- 
lated as  any  other  immigrant  people.  1  If,  however,  as- 
similation means  an  entire  physical  change,  then  the 
Japanese  possibly  cannot  be  assimilated.  There  is  some 
proof  that  the  physical  characteristics  have  changed  in 
the  second  and  third  generations  in  this  country.  As- 
similation, as  a  matter  of  fact,  is  simply  the  problem  of 
adjusting  these  people  so  that  they  fit  in  with  conditions 
in  this  environment.  The  Japanese  have  done  and  are 
doing  this.  There  is  every  proof  that  they  are  as  easily 
assimilated,  and  will  make  as  good  citizens  as  many  of 
our  other  immigrant  races. 

In  Americanization,  the  Japanese  have  various  agencies 
which  are  working  toward  this  end.  This  work  they  are 
doing  for  themselves,  and  it  is  a  work  that  is  done  for 
other  immigrants  by  American  agencies.  The  Japanese, 
through  their  associations,  are  spending  their  own  money 
to  teach  those  members  of  their  race  in  this  country  the 
principles  of  American  citizenship. 

The  question  of  dual  citizenship  has  been  much  dis- 
cussed. The  Japanese  Government  does  permit  its  citi- 
zens under  certain  conditions  to  be  expatriated.  It  is 
probable,  if  the  matter  could  be  properly  approached,  that 
some  of  the  restrictions  operative  at  present  could  be 
removed.  The  charge  that  each  Japanese  in  this  country 
is  subject  to  military  service  in  Japan  is  absurd.  Some 
of  them  are,  so  are  some  Germans  and  some  Frenchmen, 
but  this  fact  is  not  used  as  a  pretext  to  deny  either  the 
German  or  Frenchman  the  right  of  land  ownership  in 
this  country. 

Dual  citizenship  perhaps  from  the  American  standpoint 
is  obnoxious.  It  probably  is  equally  obnoxious  to  the 
Japanese  in  this  country,  but  it  is  an  easily  solved  problem 


158  Japanese  in  America 

for  the  individual  Japanese.  Through  the  Law  of  Na- 
tionality of  his  own  country,  he  can  be  expatriated  if 
he  wishes. 

The  crux  of  the  Japanese  question  has  been  the  subject 
of  immigration.  Every  other  charge  that  is  made  against 
them  is  pure  propaganda.  The  immigrant  question  is 
the  only  phase  of  the  entire  problem  that  need  be  taken 
into  consideration.  This  problem  has  been  solved  by  the 
sympathetic  understanding  of  the  Japanese  Government 
itself.  The  Root-Takahira  agreement,  familiarly  known 
as  "The  Gentlemen's  Agreement,"  was  precisely  the  sort 
of  diplomacy  needed  to  settle  this  problem.  Under  this 
agreement  the  Japanese  were  not  forced  to  admit  the 
inferiority  of  their  own  immigrants,  but  they  did  agree  to 
eliminate  the  type  of  immigrant  that  could  disturb  the 
industrial  economics  of  America.  They  have  kept  this 
agreement  to  the  letter. 

Those  phases,  such  as  the  so-called  "picture  brides," 
that  were  not  covered  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  American 
authorities  in  the  "Gentlemen's  Agreement,"  have  since 
been  voluntarily  remedied.  The  Japanese  Government 
has  been  very  quick  to  respond  to  any  suggestion  by  the 
United  States  Government  that  would  prevent  friction 
between  the  two  countries. 

The  Japanese  are  clearly  entitled  to  consideration  by 
any  one  who  will  fairly  review  the  facts  and  investigate 
the  charges  that  are  brought  against  them. 

Their  Property  Rights. 

The  Japanese  do  not  ask  that  any  consideration  be 
shown  them  that  is  not  shown  all  other  immigrants. 
They  do  feel,  however,  that  they  are  entitled  to  exactly 
the  same  treatment  that  is  accorded  other  individuals  who 
come  to  America  to  make  their  home.      The  Japanese 


Conclusions  1 59 

immigrant  is  denied  citizenship  so  he  operates  in  the 
beginning  under  a  restriction  that  is  not  imposed  upon 
any  other  national  except  the  Chinese.  Those  who  settled 
in  America  have  usually  sacrificed  everything  to  win 
material  success.  Many  of  them  have  acquired  some 
property,  and  California  has  done  everything  possible  in 
a  legislative  way  to  deprive  them  of  the  use  of  this  prop- 
erty. In  any  other  immigrant  people  we  encourage  in- 
dustry, thrift  and  initiative.  In  the  Japanese,  we  not 
only  discourage  it,  but  attempt  by  legislation  to  deprive 
him  of  the  proceeds  of  his  industry. 

Irrespective  of  the  outcome  or  ultimate  solution  of  the 
present  problem,  those  Japanese  who  have  acquired  prop- 
erty in  this  country  should  be  and  unquestionably  will  be 
protected  in  the  use  and  enjoyment  of  it. 

The  Japanese  Question  Largely  a  Jflade  One, 

The  author  believes  that  any  fair-minded  individual 
who  will  review  the  activities  and  work  of  the  Japanese 
in  this  country,  and  investigate  the  charges  against  them, 
will  find  that  the  Japanese  question  is  entirely  a  made  one. 

There  is  little  or  no  truth  in  99  per  cent  of  the  allega- 
tions that  have  been  made  as  to  their  undesirability.  They 
have  been  made  the  football  of  California  politics.  The 
Hearst  press  has  used  them  as  a  basis  for  gaining  circula- 
tion by  sensational  methods,  and  there  is  not  today  any 
real  problem  in  connection  with  these  people. 

A  group  of  California  politicians  and  the  yellow  press 
has  created  a  mythical  problem,  which  in  the  minds  of 
some  people  who  do  not  understand  the  circumstances, 
may  seem  to  be  real.  California  has  depended  upon  the 
support  of  the  other  states  in  her  ill-treatment  of  the 
Japanese,  and  the  yellow  press  has  sought  to  create  a 
national  problem  by  misuse  of  them. 


160  Japanese  in  America 

Comparative    Value    of    Restricted    Japanese    Immigration, 
With  That  of  Unrestricted  Immigration, 

America  is  called  the  melting  pot  of  the  nations,  and 
for  some  years  has  prided  herself  as  such.  In  some 
quarters  it  is  now  being  realized  that  the  melting  pot  does 
not  melt.  The  author  believes  that  the  Japanese  immi- 
gration, which  is  restricted  to  a  very  small  class,  is  of 
much  better  quality  than  much  of  the  immigration  which 
is  permitted  to  enter  without  any  restriction.  Certainly 
the  racial  characteristics  of. the  Japanese  make  them  as 
worthy  to  be  citizens  and  as  easily  assimilated  as  some  of 
the  Slav,  the  Russian,  Greek  and  South  Europe  peoples 
who  are  permitted  to  enter  at  will. 

Our  Waste  Land, 

These  Californians  who  are  pro-Japanese  are  usually  so 
because  they  have  seen  the  transformation  worked  by 
Japanese  labor  on  land  that  was  previously  waste.  Many 
spots  in  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  Valleys  have 
been  brought  into  productivity  solely  through  Japanese 
labor.  The  Japanese  are  willing  to  pioneer,  and  all  of 
our  States  possess  a  type  of  land  that  will  respond  only 
to  the  pioneer's  hand.  There  is,  moreover,  a  great  need 
for  the  development  of  this  type  of  land,  and  the  Japanese 
are  the  only  class  of  immigrants  that  supply  this  need. 
The  United  States  has  literally  millions  of  acres  of  land 
that  could  be  brought  into  fruitful  productivity  if  the 
type  of  labor  that  the  Japanese  immigration  supplies  could 
be  put  on  it.  The  improvements  wrought  by  the  individ- 
ual Japanese  upon  waste  lands  are  nothing  short  of 
marvelous.  In  one  small  section  in  California,  land  has 
been  reclaimed  from  former  Tulle  beds,  so  that  in  1920  it 
produced  something  like  nine  million  dollars  in  crop 
values  that  would  never  have  been  produced  except  for 
the  Japanese. 


Conclusions  161 

The  Economic  Need  of  This  Class  of  Immigration. 

There  is  a  strong  economic  need  that  the  Japanese,  and 
apparently  the  Japanese  alone,  can  supply.  Farm  labor 
is  becoming  scarcer  each  year,  particularly  the  type  of 
labor  that  will  raise  those  crops  that  depend  almost  en- 
tirely upon  hand  work.  White  labor  does  not,  and  never 
has  enjoyed  the  work  of  the  fields  except  where  ma- 
chinery or  animals  could  be  employed.  The  Japanese 
very  readily  take  to  this  class  of  work.  They  are  accus- 
tomed to  it  in  the  old  country,  and  land  of  this  type 
worked  by  Japanese  labor  responds  in  productivity. 

There  is  no  intention  of  the  author  to  advocate  unre- 
stricted Japanese  immigration,  but  it  is  entirely  possible 
that  a  more  liberal  construction  could  be  made  of  certain 
provisions  of  the  Root-Takahira  agreement  with  benefit 
to  both  nations.  America  needs  the  type  of  labor  that 
the  Japanese  can  supply. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
The  Solution  of  the  Japanese  Problem. 

TN  its  broad  sense,  what  is  the  Japanese  problem? 
■*■  The  question  of  immigration  is  one  of  its  phases. 
This  has  been  settled  in  a  reasonably  satisfactory  manner, 
and  if  the  Gentlemen's  Agreement  does  not  supply  just 
what  is  needed,  the  Japanese  Government  has  shown  an 
entire  willingness  to  discuss  with  the  American  State 
Department  any  amendments  to  it.  The  immigration 
problem,  in  so  far  as  it  affects  the  United  States,  is  at  the 
present  time  the  least  factor  of  the  whole  matter. 

Differences  have  occurred — most  of  them  honest  differ- 
ences— between  the  two  governments,  and  they  all  have 
been  promptly  and  sympathetically  settled.  There  exists, 
however,  a  much  larger  problem.  "The  American  people 
are  suspicious  of  Japanese  motives.  This  suspicion  has 
probably  been  created  in  their  minds  by  that  insidious 
element  that  have  been  constantly  misrepresenting  the 
aims  and  relations  of  the  two  countries.  The  Japanese 
people,  on  the  other  hand,  have  been  made  equally  sus- 
picious of  the  motives  of  the  United  States  Government. 
They  cannot  understand  the  constant  hostile  press  criti- 
cism of  them,  and  they  do  not  differentiate  between  the 
section  of  the  press  that  is  respected  and  that  other 
section  (propagandist  papers)  which  has  been  instru- 
mental in  creating  the  present  situation. 

From  the  Japanese  viewpoint,  the  whole  problem  is  one 
of  supplying  the  daily  dinner  to  fifty-seven  million  people, 
who  are  situated  on  a  group  of  islands  not  as  large  as 
the  State  of  California,  seventeen  per  cent  of  which  is 

[162] 


The  Solution  of  the  Japanese  Problem      163 

arable.  This  population  is  increasing  at  the  rate  of 
600,000  to  700,000  annually,  and  despite  the  most  in- 
tensive cultivation,  it  cannot  be  supported.  It  is  a  culti- 
vation where  every  grain  of  wheat  is  individually  planted 
and  tended  to  obtain  food  enough  for  these  people,  and 
yet  it  cannot  be  done. 

From  the  Japanese  viewpoint  there  is  only  one  solu- 
tion,— that  of  migration.  Even  if  they  were  permitted 
unrestricted  immigration  to  this  country,  the  yearly 
increase  could  not  be  taken  care  of,  and  the  Japanese 
themselves  know  this  quite  as  well  as  do  the  Americans. 

They  do  not  seek  unrestricted  immigration,  but  they 
must  go  some  place ;  but  any  place  they  may  go,  America 
raises  her  hands  in  a  highly  moral  attitude  and  questions 
their  motives.  If  any  large  group  were  to  immigrate  to 
Mexico,  for  instance,  the  propagandist  press  would  cite 
this  as  an  extreme  peril  to  this  country. 

Has  anything  been  done  to  help  them  solve  this  prob- 
lem? Emphatically  no.  The  Japanese  have  been  left 
absolutely  alone  to  solve  their  own  problem,  and  when 
they  attempt  to  do  so  they  are  met  with  an  attitude  of 
suspicion  and  hostility.  They  must  migrate — there  is 
no  other  way  out. 

The  Japanese  problem  is  only  part  of  the  Far  Eastern 
question.  In  the  background  there  are  four  hundred 
million  people  in  China  with  only  a  semblance  of  a 
government.  It  is  true  that  a  republic  in  name  exists, 
but  95%  of  the  people  are  illiterate,  with  absolutely  no 
political  experience  whatsoever,  and  a  government  so 
weak  that  it  cannot  protect  even  its  own  people  in  its 
own  dominions.  Many  of  the  provinces  of  China  are 
dominated  by  bandits,  and  the  government,  instead  of 
reaching  out  and  disciplining  them,  has  made  generals 


164  Japanese  in  America 

or  governors  of  them,  and  it  must  be  remembered  that 
China  is  next  door  to  Japan. 

In  Manchuria  and  Mongolia,  the  situation  is  much  the 
same,  and  in  Siberia,  the  last  great  white  men's  country, 
there  is  a  complete  governmental  disintegration.  Its 
people  are  rapidly  sinking  back  into  primitive  life  and 
there  has  been  a  complete  breakdown  of  methods  of 
exchange  as  well. 

In  the  western  part  there  has  been  an  invasion  of 
Bolshevistic  ideas,  and  Japan  is  very  much  worried  over 
Bolshevism.  She  does  not  like  its  crazy  economic  system 
and  does  not  intend  that  these  ideas  shall  be  extended 
into  her  political  structure. 

Japan  has  a  military  party,  and  unquestionably  this 
military  party  has  been  responsible  for  many  of  the  things 
we  criticize.  Her  record  in  Korea  has  been  anything  but 
a  good  one,  but  the  liberal  Japanese  have  criticized  this 
record  quite  as  much  as  have  Americans  or  Europeans. 
There  is  a  rising  tide  of  democracy  in  Japan,  and  this 
tide  will  shortly  overthrow  the  military  element  if  it  has 
the  sympathy  and  understanding  of  other  democratic 
peoples. 

Japan  is  confronted  on  the  one  side  with  the  potential 
menace  of  China  and  on  the  other  side  with  the  govern- 
mental breakdown  of  her  neighbors.  She  has  had  little 
experience  in  industrial  life,  and  were  she  to  embark 
upon  an  extended  industrial  program  her  competition 
would  be  resisted  by  both  the  United  States  and  England. 
Then  she  has  not  the  natural  resources,  and  yet  she  must 
do  something.     She  is  trying  migration. 

She  is  told  that  she  cannot  do  this,  of  she  cannot  do 
that,  by  people  who  have  no  realization  of  her  needs. 
Japan  cannot  nor  will  she  return  to  her  hermit  existence. 
It  was  the  United  States  who  insisted  that  she  abandon 


The  Solution  of  the  Japanese  Problem      165 

this  isolation,  and  it  is  a  section  of  the  American  press 
that  is  attempting  to  drive  her  back  into  it.  There  is  a 
fine  force  of  democracy  in  Japan,  and  if  it  can  only  be 
encouraged  by  a  little  sympathy  and  an  attempt  to  under- 
stand her  problems,  she  will  eventually  take  her  place 
among  the  democracies  of  the  world. 

The  Japanese  desire  to  live  up  to  the  highest  of  Western 
thought  and  they  are  energetically  and  honestly  attempt- 
ing to  do  so.  Their  handicaps  have  largely  come  from  a 
provincial,  racial  antagonism  that  has  been  fostered  by 
certain  dishonest  and  malign  influences.  If  the  problem 
is  to  be  solved, — and  it  must  be  solved, — there  must  be 
a  genuine  sympathy  extended  to  this  highly  ambitious 
and  intelligent  people,  and  the  United  States  must  do 
her  share. 


Our  Lack  of  Understanding  of  the  Individual  Japanese. 

There  could  be  no  better  beginning  than  with  the 
individual.  No  attempt  has  been  made  by  the  average 
American  to  understand  the  individual  Japanese.  It 
really  isn't  so  difficult.  The  average  Japanese  immigrant 
is  very  much  like  the  average  European  immigrant,  except 
that  he  is  trained  in  a  sterner  environment.  He  comes 
to  this  country  with  one  dominating  desire,  and  that  is, 
to  succeed  in  an  economic  way.  He  will  bend  every  effort 
and  make  any  sacrifice  to  do  this,  and  for  that  reason  he 
is  to  an  extent  economically  impossible.  He  should  'not 
be  barred  from  citizenship  on  that  account,  neither  should 
it  bar  him  from  the  privileges  accorded  other  nationals. 
People  who  have  lived  in  Japan  are  the  strongest  admirers 
of  the  Japanese.  As  a  race,  they  are  the  cleanest  people 
on  earth,  and  probably  the  most  ambitious.  The  indi- 
vidual Japanese  possesses  these  racial  characteristics. 


166  Japanese  in  America 

They  are  sensitive  and  proud  and  perhaps  somewhat 
provincial.  They  have  considered  their  civilization  to  be 
the  equal  of  any,  and  in  many  respects  it  is,  and  they  are 
appalled  at  the  discourtesy  that  they  have  received  in 
America.  Certainly  there  can  be  no  reason  for  this.  The 
Japanese  who  have  been  permitted  to  enter  this  country 
should  be  treated  with  as  much  respect  and  as  much 
courtesy  as  any  other  immigrant  people.  If  this  were 
done,  the  problem  would  be  easy  of  solution. 

When  the  Japanese  are  eventually  understood,  as  they 
must  be,  they  will  be  found  to  be  a  very  delightful  people 
who  have  some  splendid  traits  that  other  nationals  might 
do  well  to  emulate. 

Difference  in  Expression* 

A  large  part  of  the  problem  comes  from  the  difference 
in  expression.  The  Oriental  has  never  been  easy  for  the 
Occidental  to  understand.  They  have  a  much  older  civili- 
zation, and  perhaps  for  this  reason  it  is  more  complex, 
but  the  individuals  of  each  can  understand  each  other  if 
they  but  make  the  effort. 

The  Japanese  do  think  and  act  differently  from  the 
Occidental,  but  their  aims  and  purposes  are  similar.  They 
desire  to  succeed  in  their  chosen  vocations,  and  when  the 
economic  pressure  is  relieved  their  standard  becomes  very 
much  like  that  of  the  average  American. 

The  author  believes  that  the  problem  can  be  finally 
solved.  From  an  international  viewpoint  courtesy  will 
do  more  than  anything  else.  Even  though  it  becomes 
necessary  to  do  things  that  the  Japanese  themselves  con- 
sider harsh,  they  will  admit  the  necessity  of  much  that 
will  be  done  and  will  co-operate  in  doing  it  if  the  right 
approach  can  be  found.  Sympathy,  a  broad  understand- 
ing of  Japan's  own  problems  and  a  genuine  effort  to  help 


The  Solution  of  the  Japanese  Problem      167 

her  solve  them,  will  do  much  in  securing  this  solution. 
The  mere  meaningless  calling  of  names  can  do  nothing 
but  further  racial  prejudice. 

The  approach  to  all  problems  with  a  sympathetic  feeling 
for  the  sensibilities  of  the  other  side  will  solve  all  our 
misunderstandings.  There  is  only  one  competent  ap- 
proach, and  that  is  through  the  United  States  State 
Department.  All  the  problems  and  all  the  difficulties  can 
only  be  solved  by  the  two  governments.  The  petty 
restrictive  legislation  of  California  and  other  states  must 
cease,  and  the  Japanese  accorded  the  exact  rights  that  are 
given  other  nationals. 

That  is  the  whole  solution  to  the  problems.  A  sympa- 
thetic and  tolerant  attitude  toward  Japan  as  a  nation,  and 
according  her  just  plain,  ordinary  courtesy  and  the  exten- 
sion of  like  privileges  to  those  Japanese  who  are  here, 
and  that  after  all  is  only  justice. 

The  following  are  the  Japanese  Associations  and  their 
directors  in  the  State  of  California : 

Japanese  Association  of  Japanese  Association  of 

America,  Oakland,  Calif. 

444  Bush  Street,  President T.  Masuda 

San  Francisco,  Calif.  Vice-President. .  .E.  Nakashige 

President George  Shima  Secretary Z.  Osaki 

Gen'l  Secretary K.  Kanzaki  Treasurer K.  Yamashita 


Treasurer T.  Teshima 

Treasurer S.  Kon 


Japanese  Association  of 


rr                                           .  Stockton,  Calif. 

Treasurer K.  Kojima  '                     ,. 

President Yo  Suzuki 

Japanese  Association  of  Secretary H.  Taji 

Los  Angeles,  Calif.  Treasurer S.  Takahashi 

President Sie  Fujii 

Vice-Pres. .  Minejiro  Hayashida  Japanese  Association  of 

Treas....Tamekichi  Kumamoto  Sonoma  Co.,  Calif. 

Treas Kinzo  Yasuhara  President G.  Shimada 

Gen'l  Sec'y Jisaburo  Kasai  Vice-President.  .W.  Karamatsu 

Ass't  Sec'y Seimei  Ogawa  Secretary M.  Nakata 

Ass't  Sec'y Akie  Yasuda  Treasurer I.  Hamamoto 


168 


Japanese  in  America 


Japanese  Association  of 
San  Jose,  Calif. 

President K.  Hatakeyama 

Secretary G.  Nambu 

Treasurer F.  Okida 

Japanese  Association  of 
Salinas,  Calif. 

President K.  Endo 

Vice-President H.  Nagano 

Sec'y-Treas T.   Shimotsuka 

Japanese  Association  of 
Florin,  Calif. 

President K.  Ishigaki 

Vice-President T.  Otani 

Secretary K.  Iwatsuru 

Treasurer M.  Yagi 

Japanese  Association  of 
Suisun,  Calif. 

President H.  Kojima 

Vice-President H.  Yoshino 

Secretary C.  T.  Suzuki 

Treasurer S.  Sawasaki 

Japanese  Association  of 
Vallejo,  Calif. 

President J.  Kusumoto 

Secretary L.  Yamasaki 

Treasurer K.  Gohara 

Japanese  Association  of 
Napa,  Calif. 

President Y.  Yotsuya 

Vice-President J.  Matsuda 

Secretary Y.  Yasui 

Treasurer S.  Ishikawa 

Japanese  Association  of 
Santa  Cruz,  Calif. 

President H.  S.  Ogawa 

Secretary San  Ikeda 

Treasurer K.  Wataabe 


Japanese  Association  of 
Palo  Alto,  Calif. 

President M.  Yonemura 

Vice-President K.  Sato 

Secretary ' G.  Kai 

Treasurer S.  Yoshida 

Treasurer H.  Ujita 

Japanese  Association  of  Lodi, 
Aeampo,  Woodbridge,  Calif. 

President T.  Oki 

Vice-President T.   Sumita 

Secretary S.  Takahashi 

Treasurer T.  Nakagawa 

Japanese  Association  of 
Vacaville,  Calif. 

President T.  Furuya 

Vice-President. .  .F.  Yamamoto 

Vice-President I.  Minamida 

Secretary K.  T.  Obata 

Treasurer C.  Shimada 

Treasurer Y.  Uramato 

Japanese  Association  of  New 

Castle,  Placer  Co., 

Calif. 

President Y.  Matusmoto 

Vice-President T.  Okazaki 

Secretary W.  Nabeshima 

Treasurer R.  Kobayakawa 

Central  Association  of 

South  California. 

258  Jackson  St., 

Los  Angeles,  Calif. 

President T.  Chino 

Vice-President K.  Sakamoto 

Gen'l  Secretary S.  Sasamori 

Agri.  Advisor. . .  .K.  Oakamoto 
Editor  of  Agri.  Bulletin— 

K.  Yamauchi  and  T.  Iriye 

Treasurer J.  Fujioka 

Treasurer H.  Itano 


The  Solution  of  the  Japanese  Problem      169 


Japanese  Association  of 
San  Francisco,  Cal. 

President Michi  Tsuzu 

Vice-President M.  Aeki 

Treasurer. Eizo  Osawa 

Treasurer. .  .Kunisabro  Ohashi 
Secretary Shigemitsu  Saito 

Japanese  Association  of  Sac- 
ramento Valley,  Calif. 

President I.  Tsuda 

Secretary T.  Karakawa 

Treasurer K.  Ikeda 

Japanese  Association  of 
North  California. 

President K.  Uchihara 

Vice-President G.  Terui 

Secretary H.  Inouye 

Treasurer K.  Ono 

Japanese  Association  of 
San  Pedro,  Calif. 

President I.  Hatashita 

Vice-President M.  Kondo 

Secretary S.  Uchida 

Treasurer A.  Oka 

Treasurer K.  Tatsumi 

Japanese  Association  of 
Watsonville,  Calif. 

President T.   Fukumoto 

Vice-President U.  Shikuma 

Secretary M.  Kuniyoshi 

Treasurer K.  Kitaji 

Treasurer K.  Inouye 

Japanese  Association  of 
Alameda,  Calif. 

President S.  Itow 

Vice-President T.  Miki 

Secretary T.  R.  Morita 

Treasurer H.  Nakata 

Treasurer K.  Iwamasa 


Japanese  Association  of 
Walnut  Grove,  Calif. 

President K.  Hotta 

Vice-President I.  Oto 

Secretary G.  Endow 

Treasurer K.  Hirotsu 

Japanese  Association  of 
Isleton,  Calif. 

President M.  Morimoto 

Vice-President..  .Y.  Hashimoto 

Treasurer T.  Furukawa 

Director M.   Matsumura 

Director R.  Omaye 

Secretary S.  Takesake 

Japanese  Association  of 
Contra  Costa  and  Con- 
cord, Calif. 

President K.  Kitagawa 

Secretary  S.  Masumoto 

Treasurer G.  Mukuno 

Treasurer T.  Fukuchi 

Japanese  Association  of  San 
Luis  Obispo,  Calif. 

President T.  Eto 

Vice-President S.  Koga 

Secretary T.  Miyamoto 

Treasurer S.  Shinoda 

Japanese  Association  of 
Loomis,  Calif. 

President K.  Takuma 

Vice-President T.  Otani 

Secretary S.  Miyahara 

Japanese  Association  of 
Monterey,  Calif. 

President I.  Takigawas 

Vice-President S.  Kodama 

Secretary K.  Ogawa 

Treasurer O.  Uchida 

Treasurer S.  N.  Oda 


170 


Japanese  in  America 


Santa   Clara   Produce  and 
Canning  Co.,  Calif. 

President K.  Hatakeyama 

Vice-President K.  Okagaki 

Vice-President. .  .K.  Miyamoto 

Manager S.  Funabiki 

Treasurer Y.  Yamakawa 

Treasurer S.  Yoshihara 

Auditor T.  Kimura 


Hanford,  Calif. 

President Y.  Fujita 

Secretary T.   Yonezaka 


Japanese  Association  of 
Fresno,  Calif. 

President K.  Kamikawa 

Vice-President K.  Awaya 

Secretary Robert  Ono 

Treasurer K.  Nakamato 

Treasurer J.  Nakata 

Japanese  Association  of 
Nevada. 

President C.  N.  Kawana 

Secretary C.  N.  Kawana 

Treasurer S.  Nunemori 

Treasurer C.  Saso 

Japanese  Association  of 


JAPANESE  ASSOCIATION  OF  IMPERIAL  VALLEY, 
NORTH. 


Brawley,  Calif. 

President K.  Otsuka 

Vice-President K.  Akiyama 

Secretary A.  Takahashi 

Treasurer K.  Ishimaru 

Treasurer N.  Azama 

Long  Beach,  Calif. 

President Y.  Mizuko 

Vice-President R.  Abe 

Secretary Z.  Yoshinaga 

Treasurer M.  Nakao 

Treasurer O.  Uyamoto 

Montabello,  Calif. 

President M.  Kai 

Vice  President T.  Hataya 

Secretary K.  Itsuyashi 

Treasurer M.  Uyamatsu 

Treasurer K.  Matoba 


Dompoc,  Calif. 

President S.  Iwamoto 

Vice-President M.  G.  Tani 

Secretary K.  Tsuyuki 

Treasurer S.  Inouya 

Treasurer M.  Okutsu 

Riverside,  Calif. 

President T.  Shintani 

Vice-President K.  Ochiai 

Secretary T.  Soyajima 

Treasurer D.  Sanematsu 

Treasurer J.  Harada 

Industrial  Association  of 
Orange  Co.,  Calif. 

Chair,  of  Directors K.  Yani 

Secretary Y.  Sasaki 

Treasurer K.  Aihara 

Treasurer T.  Ito 


The  Solution  of  the  Japanese  Problem      171 


San  Gabriel,  Calif. 

President K.  Sakamoto 

Secretary K.  Anzai 

Treasurer T.  Takada 

Santa  Barbara,  Calif. 

President S.  Asakura 

Vice-President.  .K.  Fukushima 

Secretary H.  Kato 

Treasurer S.  Hayashida 

Smeltzer,  Calif. 

President T.  Chino 

Vice-President I.  Oka 

Secretary S.  Matsushima 

Treasurer K.  Ishi 

Treasurer K.  Akiyama 

Anaheim,  Calif. 

President S.  Kitazaki 

Vice-President S.  Hiraide 

Secretary K.  Ishikawa 

Treasurer S.  Tanaka 

Treasurer J.  Kobayashi 

Moneta,  Calif. 

President S.  Ono 

Vice-President M.  Izumi 

Secretary T.  Matsumoto 

Treasurer K.  Nagayama 

Treasurer S.  Ota 

Orange,  Calif. 

President S.  Fujimoto 

Vice-President 1.  Horigushi 

Secretary E.  Domoto 

Treasurer S.  Okubo 


Pasadena,  Calif. 

President T.  Suzuki 

Secretary M.  Morikawaa 

Treasurer K.  Tagashira 

Treasurer H.  Wakichi 

San  Bernardino,  Calif. 

Pres C.  Yamaoa 

Vice-President T.  Kaya 

Secretary S.  Fukuda 

Treasurer T.  Tumagari 

Treasurer I.  Yanamoto 

San  Diego,  Calif. 

President J.  Kuga 

Vice-President S.  Ogino 

Secretary T.  Hamano 

Treasurer S.  Oshiumi 

Treasurer B.  Doi 

Guadalupe,  Calif. 

President S.  Takeda 

Vice-Pres.  and  Treasurer — 

Y.  Karasuda 
Secretary I.  Matsuura 

Marysville,  Calif. 

President N.  Sato 

Vice-President G.  Morita 

Secretary S.  Sugimoto 

Treasurer B.  Yamaguchi 

Director F.  Kariya 

Director S.  Kuroda 

Oxnard,  Calif. 

President K.  Asano 

Vice-Pres.  &  Sec. A.  Okamura 
Treasurer S.  Takasugi 


BIOGRAPHIES. 


BIOGRAPHIES. 

MUCH  has  been  written  by  the  hostile  press  on  the 
successes  of  individual  Japanese  in  this  country. 
There  is  a  tendency  to  belittle  and  attribute  these  suc- 
cesses to  some  unusual  quality,  or  a  failure  to  observe 
ordinary  commercial  ethics.  The  Japanese  are  called 
"tricky"  by  the  press. 

The  author  submits  a  group  of  typical  cases  among 
the  Japanese;  all  of  them  have  come  over  here  as  raw 
immigrants  and  battled  their  way  to  material  success 
against  seemingly  overwhelming  odds. 

The  case  of  George  Shima  is  typical.  A  review  of  his 
life  simply  shows  that  the  Japanese  characteristics  of 
tenacity  of  purpose  and  an  infinite  capacity  for  labor  is 
the  sole  secret  of  his  success. 

These  are  American  characteristics,  and  when  they  are 
found  in  any  other  immigrant  people  except  the  Japanese 
they  are  applauded  and  the  people  considered  the  best 
material  for  citizenship. 


174 


Biographies 


175 


SHIRO  FUJIOKA. 

Born   1879.     Married;   has  three  sons  and  four  daughters.     Came 
to  America  iSgi. 

Engaged  in  the  publishing  business;  for  eight  years  was  Editor 
of  the  "North  American  Times"  leading  daily  newspaper  of  Seattle, 
Washington.  Now  connected  with  the  Editorial  Department  of  the 
Los  Angeles  daily  newspaper,  "Rafu  Shimpo."  During  the  years 
1919-1920  occupied  the  position  as  President  of  the  Central  Japanese 
Association  of  Southern  California.  During  the  war  Mr.  Fujioka 
took  an  active  part  in  war  activities,  being  chairman  of  the  Rice 
Campaign,  an  organization  which  sent  thousands  of  sacks  of  rice  to 
starving  people  in  Europe. 


176 


Japanese  in  America 


KINZO  YASAHARA, 
Los  Angeles,  Calif. 

Bom  in  Japan  1867.    Came  to  America  1903.    Married,  and  has  tivo 
sons  and  two  daughters. 

Mr.  Kinzo  Yasahara  engaged  in  the  Hotel  and  Brewery  business 
in  Los  Angeles  1905.  When  the  Prohibition  law  went  into  effect 
the  brewery  was  converted  into  a  Miso  and  Soy  Sauce  factory. 

Mr.  Yasahara  is  also  Ships  Chandler,  supplying  all  Japanese 
ships  of  the  T.  K.  K.  and  O.  S.  S.  Companies  touching  at  Southern 
California  Ports.  He  has  large  farming  interests  in  Mexico,  and 
has  amassed  a  fortune  by  hard  work  and  honest  business  methods- 


Biographies 


177 


GEORGE  SHIMA. 

Born  in  Japan  1870.    Came  to  America  1890.    Married,  and  has  two 
sons  and  one  daughter. 

Achievements  of  George  Shima,  the  Japanese  "Potato  King." 
George  Shima,  you  understand,  is  the  Japanese  "Potato  King." 
By  common  consent  he  is  far  and  away  the  most  successful  Japanese 
in  California.  If  you  go  to  Stockton  and  stand  at  the  waterfront 
you  will  observe  a  dozen  steamboats,  barges,  tugboats  and  launches, 
all  bearing  the  name  of  Shima.  These  are  used  in  reaching  his 
delta  ranches,  ten  to  fifteen  miles  down  the  San  Joaquin  River  from 
Stockton,  and  in  shipping  his  potatoes  to  San  Francisco. 

As  the  members  of  the  United  States  House  Committee  on 
Immigration,  visiting  the  Pacific  Coast  during  the  month  of  July, 
1920,  took  one  of  these  launches  and  sped  through  the  winding 
watercourse,  delta  after  delta  passed  before  their  eyes,  all  developed 
or  to  be  developed  by  Shima's  enterprise.  It  was  a  surprise  to  the 
gentlemen   of   the   House.     Obviously  they   did   not   expect   such   a 


178  Japanese  in  America 

triumphant  achievement  from  any  "little  brown  man."  As  the 
journey  of  inspection  approached  an  end  one  of  the  gentlemen 
slapped  Shima  on  the  back  in  the  typical  American  fashion  and  said  : 
"Air.  Shima,  this  is  a  real  case  of  'Let  George  do  it.'  " 

One  of  the  Japanese  pioneers  in  the  Golden  State,  Shima  was, 
up  to  a  score  of  years  ago,  little  more  than  a  labor  contractor,  sup- 
plying American  ranchers  and  orchardists  with  laborers.  He  had 
the  foresight  to  see  a  fortune  in  store  in  the  apparently  barren  delta 
of  the  San  Joaquin  River.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Stockton  this 
sheet  of  water  is  torn  by  numerous  islets,  all  covered  with  a  dense 
growth  of  tule  and  other  wild  vegetation,  and  usually  inundated 
during  winter  months.  Not  only  was  the  picture  far  from  alluring, 
but  the  place  was  infested  with  malaria,  and  was  considered  too 
unhealthy  for  farming.  At  any  rate  the  delta  had  never  attracted 
American  farmers. 

But  George  Shima  was  not  afraid  to  try  his  hand  in  the  risky 
venture.  Backed  by  an  American  firm,  which  owned  many  of  the 
deltas,  Shima  embarked  upon  a  precarious  experiment.  First,  he 
diked  one  of  the  islets  and  drained  the  soil  inside  by  cutting  a  wide 
ditch  across  it.  Superfluous  water  in  the  ditch  was  pumped  out 
into  the  river  by  engine.  Thus  the  land  was  made  to  yield  to  the 
plough,  operated  by  a  steam  engine.  After  the  first  ploughing  the 
virgin  soil  was  allowed  to  lie  idle  for  a  year  or  two,  so  that  the 
brush  and  tule  would  rot  under  the  sod.  The  soil  thus  prepared 
was  found  excellent  for  the  cultivation  of  potatoes,  and  Shima's 
dream  came  true. 

The  American  landowners,  interested  in  the  development  of  the 
delta  found  in  Shima  a  thorough  gentleman,  honest  to  the  core, 
straightforward  in  his  dealings,  yet  alert  and  alive  to  the  advanced 
methods  of  farming  and  business. 

In  the  past  twenty  years  almost  $8,000,000  has  been  paid  to  these 
landowners  by  Shima.  In  all  the  dealings  involving  the  payment  of 
this  enormous  amount  of  rents  not  a  single  lawsuit  has  been  resorted 
to.  It  was  George  Shima's  probity,  coupled  with  his  business 
acumen,  which  won  him  the  absolute  confidence  of  his  landowners. 
Today  he  is  himself  a  millionaire  and  owns  0,000  acres  of  delta 
lands,  cultivating  in  addition  7,000  acres  under  lease. 

Mr.  Shima  has  held  the  position  of  President  of  the  Japanese 
Association  of  America  for  thirteen  years.  He  employs  a  large  force 
of  skilled  and  unskilled  labor,  ninety  per  cent  of  which  are  white. 
He  also  has  large  holdings  in  the  state  of  Oregon,  which  he  utilizes 
for  the  purpose  of  raising  seed  potatoes. 


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180 


Japanese  in  America 


Bom   in   Japan   1S77. 


MASAHARU  KONDO, 
San  Diego,  Calif. 

Came   to  America   igo8. 
one  son. 


Married,  and   has 


Educated  at  the  Imperial  University  of  Japan,  afterwards 
appointed  as  Commissioner  of  the  Imperial  Fisheries  Institute  at 
Tokio,  Japan.  Came  to  America  in  1908,  starting  a  world's  tour 
for  the  purpose  of  investigating  the  different  countries'  methods  of 
fishing  and  fish  canning.  After  visiting  the  large  fishing  centers  of 
America  he  proceeded  to  Newfoundland,  England,  France,  Belgium, 
Italy,  Germany  and  Russia,  thence  to  Siberia  and  Darien,  a  Chinese 
port,  returning  to  Japan,  1911. 

During  his  tour  of  the  Pacific  Coast  he  observed  an  opportunity 
to  develop  the  fishing  industry  at  San  Diego,  and  in  1912  organized 
a  company,  all  American  capital.  Mr.  Kondo  is  now  President  of 
the  M.  &  K.  Fisheries  Company,  also  President  of  the  Mexican 
Industrial  Development  Company  of  San  Diego.  He  occupied  the 
position   as    President   of   the   Japanese   Association   of    San    Diego 


Biographies 


181 


during  the  years  1916  and  1917.  Took  an  active  part  in  work  con- 
nected with  the  San  Diego  Industrial  Exposition,  also  the  American 
War  Relief  organizations. 


JUTARO  NAKATA. 

Born .    Married  1903;  has  two  sons  and  one  daughter.    Came 

to  America  1900. 

One  of  the  pioneers  of  Central  California.  In  the  year  1900  Mr. 
Nakata  located  in  the  neighborhood  of  Fresno  and  engaged  in 
farming,  taking  over  the  management  of  a  large  tract  of  land  which 
was  purchased  by  the  Buddhist  Church  of  Bowles,  Fresno  County. 
This  district  was  little  more  than  a  barren  desert  waste,  with  no 
water  for  irrigation  purposes,  making  farming  a  very  arduous  task, 
but  after  years  of  hard  labor  Mr.  Nakata  today  owns  one  of  the 
largest  producing  vineyards  in  that  district.  Mr.  Nakata  is  Director 
of  the  Industrial  Bank  of  Fresno  and  Trustee  of  the  Church  of 
Bowles;  takes  an  active  part  in  all  movements  that  are  for  the 
public  welfare.  He  donated  a  large  tract  of  land  for  church  building 
purposes  at  Bowles. 


182 


Japanese  in  America 


HARRY  T.  TOMIO, 
Los  Angeles,  Calif. 

Born  in  Japan  1882.    Came  to  America  1889.    Married,  and  has  one 
son  and  three  datighters. 

Educated  in  America  and  has  adopted  American  ideals  and 
customs.  Today  Mr.  Tomio  controls  one  of  the  largest  department 
stores  in  Southern  California  and  has  built  up  a  successful  business 
bv  hard  work  and  honest  dealings. 


Biographies 


183 


KATSUTARO  TANIGOSHI,  L.L.  B., 
Los  Angeles,  Calif. 

Born  in  Japan  1880.    Came  to  America  1894.    Married,  and  has  two 
sons  and  one  daughter. 

Mr.  Tanigoshi  was  then  the  youngest  immigrant  to  arrive  in 
America  from  Japan.  He  entered  the  Lowel  High  School  of  San 
Francisco  in  1896  and  graduated  in  1900.  He  then  took  up  the  study 
of  law  and  entered  Wisconsin  University  in  1902.  Two  years  later 
he  transferred  to  the  Northwestern  Law  School  in  Chicago,  from 
which  college  he  graduated  with  the  degree  of  L.L.  B.  in  1907.  In 
1909  Mr.  Tanigoshi  began  practicing  law  in  the  city  of  Los  Angeles, 
which  profession  he  is  successfully  engaged  in,  being  held  in  high 
esteem  by  both  Americans  and  Japanese.  He  held  the  office  of 
President  of  the  Los  Angeles  Japanese  Association  in  the  years  1918 
and  1919.  During  the  world's  great  war  he  took  complete  charge  of 
the  Japanese  war  activities  in  Southern  California  and  raised  large 
sums  of  money  for  Liberty  Loans,  War  Savings  Stamps  and  dona- 


184 


Japanese  in  America 


tions  to  the  Red  Cross,  and  other  relief  organizations.  He  acts  as 
Treasurer  and  Trustee  for  the  Japanese  Children's  Home  of  South- 
ern  California. 


S.  G.  SAKAMOTO, 
Woodlake,  Calif. 

Born  in  Japan  1884.     Came  to  America  1889.    Married,  and  has  one 
son  and  three  daughters. 

For  six  years  following  his  arrival  in  America,  Mr.  Sakamoto 
engaged  in  the  jewelry  business.  Later,  becoming  interested  in 
agriculture,  he  commenced  farming  in  Tulare  County  in  1905,  and 
today  farms  1,900  acres,  one  of  the  largest  and  most  successful 
farmers  in  Central  California. 

Mr.  Sakamoto  holds  the  office  of  President  of  the  Japanese  Asso- 
ciation of  Tulare  County,  California,  and  is  respected  in  his  com- 
munity by  both  Americans  and  Japanese. 


Biographies 


185 


DR.  PETER  M.  SUSKI,  M.  D. 

Born    in  Japan   18/3.     Came   to  America   189S.     Married,  has  two 
sons  and  five  daughters. 

Received  his  early  education  in  Japan,  but  owing  to  the  death  of 
his  father  was  unable  to  complete  his  High  School  course.  On  his 
arrival  in  America  he  took  up  photography,  which  occupation  he 
followed  for  a  number  of  years.  Being  of  a  studious  nature  he 
decided  to  take  up  the  study  of  medicine.  Dr.  Suski,  then  a  poor 
man  with  a  family,  discovered  the  only  way  for  him  to  gain  this 
end  was  to  work  at  photography  by  day  and  study  at  night.  This  he 
did,  attending  night  school  for  a  time,  but  he  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  if  he  was  to  succeed  in  getting  sufficient  education  to  enable 
him  to  attend  a  university  he  must  work  at  nights  and  attend  high 
school  during  the  days.  Having  accomplished  this,  and  at  the  same 
time  supporting  his  family,  he  finally  graduated  from  High  School 
and  entered  the  Southern  California  University.  From  this  university 
he  graduated  in  1917  with  the  degree  of  M.  D.     Mr.  Suski  today  is 


186 


Japanese  in  America 


successfully  practicing  medicine  in  Los  Angeles.  He  is  also  quite  a 
linguist,  speaking  five  different  languages  fluently,  an  example  of 
grit  and  perseverance. 


KYUTARO  ABIKO, 
San  Francisco. 

Bom   in   Japan    1865.     Came   to  America   1885.     Married,  and   has 

one  son. 

Mr.  Abiko  was  one  of  the  early  pioneers  from  Japan,  coming  to 
this  country  thirty-six  years  ago,  following  a  number  of  successful 
years  in  the  publishing  business.  He  is  at  present  President  and 
General  Manager  of  the  leading  Japanese  Newspaper  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, "The  Daily  Japanese  American!'  His  paper  enjoys  the  largest 
circulation  of  any  Japanese  newspaper  published  in  a  foreign  country. 
Mr.  Abiko  is  of  the  Christian  faith  and  for  many  years  has  held  the 
office  of  President  of  the  Gospel  Society  connected  with  the  Japanese 
Methodist  Church  at  San  Francisco. 


Biographies 


187 


His  belief  is  that  Christianization  is  the  only  solution  to  the 
problem  of  Americanization  of  the  Japanese  in  America.  His  life- 
long work  has  been  to  help  the  Japanese  and  Americans  to  fully 
understand  each  other,  and  live  together  in  the  true  Christian  spirit. 


Born  in  Japan  1887. 


JIRO  FUJIOKA, 
Los  Angeles,  Calif. 

Came  to  America  1903.    Married,  and  lias  one 
daughter  and  tzvo  sons. 


Mr.  Fujioka,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  came  to  America  to  complete 
his  education.  Having  a  leaning  toward  mechanics,  Mr.  Fujioka 
decided  to  take  up  the  study  of  automobile  engineering,  and  on 
February  10,  1911,  engaged  in  the  automobile  repair  business.  By 
dint  of  hard  work  he  has  built  up  one  of  the  largest  automobile 
repair  factories  in  Southern  California,  operating  as  the  F.  &  K. 
Garage  Company,  of  which  company,  Mr.  Fujioka  is  proprietor  and 
general  manager.  He  is  highly  respected  and  esteemed  by  both 
Americans  and  Japanese  business  men  in  Los   Angeles,  and  gives 


Japanese  in  America 


employment  to  a  large  number  of  mechanics,  amongst  whom  are 
thirty  Americans,  who  are  loud  in  their  praise  of  Mr.  Fujioka  as  a 
conscientious  and  benevolent  employer. 

During  the  war,  Mr.  Fujioka  took  a  very  active  part  in  the  relief 
work  amongst  the  Japanese,  subscribing  liberally  to  the  Red  Cross 
and  Liberty  Loans. 


TORUCHIRO  HORI, 
Los  Angeles,  Calif. 

Born  in  Japan  1891.    Came  to  America  1906.    Married,  and  has  one 
son  and  tzvo  daughters. 

Mr.  Hori  came  to  America  to  join  his  brother,  who  was  then 
conducting  a  small  furnishing  store.  After  years  of  hard  work,  he 
is  today  partner  and  general  manager  of  the  firm  of  Hori  Bros., 
one  of  the  largest  furnishing  stores  in  Los  Angeles. 


Biographies 


189 


KANAYE  NAGASAWA, 

FoUNTAINGROVE,  SANTA  R.OSA,  CALIF. 

Kanaye  Nagasawa  was  born  in  the  city  of  Kagoshima,  province 
of  Satsuma,  Kiushu,  Japan,  on  the  12th  day  of  March,  1853.  His 
name  was  Ficosuke  Isonaga,  who  was  the  fourth  son  of  Magoshiro 
Isonaga,  who  in  turn  was  a  member  of  the  Samurai  class  and  a  high 
official  of  the  government  of  the  Prince  of  Satsuma.  The  Samurai 
is  the  class  immediately  below  the  aristocracy  and  they  form  the 
chief  moving  power  in  the  empire.  Since  the  new  era  in  Japan, 
many  of  the  Samurai  have  risen  into  the  aristocracy.  The  duties  of 
the  father  of  Kanaye  were  to  oversee  many  gunpowder  factories  in 
the  provinces  of  Satsuma,  Osumi  and  Hioga. 

Being  the  petted  child  of  the  family,  Kanaye  accompanied  his 
father  in  his  rounds  of  travel,  and  this  gave  him  the  rare  opportunity 
to  see  the  country  that  was  under  the  dominion  of  the  Prince  of 
Satsuma.  From  childhood  he  took  more  pleasure  in  athletics  than 
in  book  study.  He  wore  two  swords  whenever  he  passed  outside  of 
his  gates;  for  this  was  demanded  by  the  custom  among  the  Samurai. 


190  Japanese  in  America 

He  was  rather  prococious ;  at  the  age  of  nine  to  twelve  years  he 
took  a  great  interest  in  discussions  on  the  political  affairs  of  Japan, 
for  Japan  was  then  in  the  turmoil  of  transition  from  the  old  order 
to  the  new. 

At  the  bombardment  of  Kagoshima  by  the  English  fleet  in  18G2, 
Kanaye  accompanied  his  mother  on  foot,  in  the  pouring  rain,  to  an 
elevated  plateau ;  and  from  there  he  witnessed  the  first  shot  fired 
from  the  British  warship;  he  also  saw  the  battle,  which  ended  in 
the  burning  of  the  Japanese  merchant  ships  and  in  the  final  destruc- 
tion of  the  city. 

After  the  bombardment  was  over,  his  father  took  him  through  the 
burnt  district  and  damaged  forts ;  they  examined  the  havoc  that  had 
been  wrought  by  the  powerful  guns  of  the  English.  Kanaye  was 
greatly  grieved  by  the  spectacle,  and  he  realized  his  country's  help- 
lessness against  any  foreign  power.  The  necessity,  therefore,  to 
acquire  western  knowledge  in  order  to  make  Japan  powerful  against 
foreign  nations,  became  a  great  incentive  in  the  future  movements 
of  this  young  man's  life. 

His  father,  being  a  most  progressive  patriot,  instilled  into  the 
mind  of  his  boy  the  great  importance  of  reinstating  the  Mikado  on 
his  imperial  throne  and  of  overthrowing  the  Shiogune,  the  man  who 
then  was  called  the  temporal  emperor  and  who  was  exercising  an 
arbitrary  and  tyrannical  rule  throughout  Japan. 

When  the  Prince  of  Satsuma  decided  to  send  a  few  young  men 
to  England  in  the  spring  of  1865,  Kanaye  was  chosen  one  of  the 
nineteen.  He  was  the  youngest  of  them,  being  only  thirteen  years 
of  age.  On  their  return  to  Japan  they  found  the  Mikado  reinstated 
and  the  old  feudal  system  abolished.  They  were  now  appointed  to 
fill  the  most  important  official  positions  as  diplomats  and  members 
of  the  cabinet  in  the  newly  formed  imperial  government  of  Japan. 
Count  Terashima,  Count  Arinori  Mori,  Naonobu  Sameshima, 
Admiral  Zunzo  Matsumura,  Kiyonari  Yoshida,  Rionosuke  Hatake- 
yama  were  among  the  men  appointed. 

Before  the  departure  of  the  young  men  from  Japan,  the  Prince 
of  Satsuma  changed  the  names  of  all  those  he  sent  abroad ;  because, 
at  this  time,  to  embark  to  a  foreign  land  was  absolutely  prohibited 
by  the  Shiogune  government.  The  name  Kanaye  Nagasawa  was 
given  at  this  time  to  the  hero  of  this  sketch,  and  he  has  retained  it 
ever  since  ;  and  he  is  now  known  only  by  this  name  in  America  and 
in  other  foreign  countries. 

Inasmuch   as   the   departure  of   the   men   from  Japan  had   to   be 


Biographies  191 

kept  a  secret,  they  were  advised  to  conceal  themselves  in  a  small 
fishing  village  for  several  weeks,  awaiting  the  arrival  of  an  English 
steamer,  chartered  purposely  to  convey  them  to  Hong  Kong.  They 
remained  at  this  port  in  order  to  become  Europeanized  in  clothing 
and  hair-cut,  so  as  to  avoid  notice.  After  this  they  took  ship  and 
went  openly  to  England. 

Spending  two  months  with  the  other  students  in  London,  he 
departed  for  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  where  he  studied  two  years,  after 
which  he  went  to  visit  his  companions,  intending  to  return  to  Scot- 
land. On  his  arrival  in  London,  he  discovered  that  the  majority  of 
the  students  had  returned  to  Japan,  only  five  remaining  in  England. 
This  change  was  caused  by  the  fact  that  the  Prince  of  Satsuma  was 
no  longer  able  to  continue  to  finance  their  studies. 

In  the  year  1867,  a  prominent  English  diplomat,  a  lover  of  Japan, 
introduced  Kanaye  Nagasawa  to  the  great  American  seer,  poet  and 
philosopher,  Thomas  Lake  Harris,  who  was  visiting  England  to 
arrange  for  the  publication  of  his  writings.  This  was  the  illuminated 
and  eloquent  prophet,  whom  William  T.  Stead  calls  "the  greatest 
seer  of  the  modern  world." 

This  great  humanitarian,  Thomas  Lake  Harris,  loved  Japan  and 
the  Japanese ;  and  he  kindly  offered  to  help  Nagasawa  and  his 
friends,  offered  them  financial  assistance  and  also  invited  them  to 
make  their  home  on  his  estate  in  America.  This  was  situated  in 
Amenia  and  at  Brocton,  in  the  state  of  New  York. 

These  young  men  were  idealists,  and  they  were  ready  to  follow 
the  great  leader  and  to  accept  this  offer  to  live  the  life  of  reason — 
the  life  of  culture  and  labor.  This  social  order  is  what  is  known 
as  the  New  Life,  an  order  wherein  all  men — fired  by  the  Social 
Christ — are  to  live  together  as  consecrated  brothers,  an  order 
wherein  the  Divine  Christ  is  the  moving  spirit  in  all  the  wheels  of 
industry.  In  this  New  Life,  the  teaching  ministry  is  the  industrial 
ministry,  the  liturgy  is  labor.  The  stone  of  industry  (that  the 
builders  of  ecclesiastical  Christendom  rejected)  is  to  become  the 
head  of  the  corner.  In  this  practical  idealism  we  behold  the  noblest 
conception  of  religion  that  has  ever  descended  into  the  world. 

Into  this  divine  movement  young  Nagasawa  entered  with  a  fine 
enthusiasm,  and  he  has  remained  faithful  to  it  for  over  a  half 
century.  At  first  he  devoted  a  part  of  his  time  to  study  and  a  part 
of  it  to  bread-labor.  For  eight  years  he  studied  many  subjects- 
domestic  science,  social  science,  floriculture,  horticulture,  viniculture, 
poultry   and   stock-raising.     But   most   important   of   all,   Nagasawa 


192  Japanese  in  America 


came  into  close  affectionate  union  with  Thomas  Lake  Harris,  and 
from  this  remarkable  teacher  he  received  instruction  in  that  sacred 
knowledge  known  only  to  the  few  who  are  kindled  by  the  wisdom 
of  eternity. 

T.  L.  Harris  decided  to  move  the  school  of  the  Xew  Life  to  the 
milder  skies  of  California.  In  1875  he  made  his  journey  of  inspec- 
tion to  the  Far  West,  and  he  asked  Nagasawa  to  accompany  him. 
The  beloved  leader  bought  a  fine  estate  of  two  thousand  acres  near 
Santa  Rosa,  California,  and  named  it  "Fountaingrove."  Kanaye 
Nagasawa  has  given  all  his  later  years  to  the  development  of  these 
hill  and  valley  lands.  Four  hundred  acres  are  in  grapes,  fifty  acres 
in  fruit  trees,  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  acres  are  used  for  grain 
and  hay,  while  the  rest  are  used  as  grazing  land.  The  chief  business 
is  viniculture.  Horses  are  bred — Percheron,  Arabian,  thoroughbred, 
as  well  as  the  standard  breed  for  carriage  uses.  Mules,  milch  cows 
and  hogs  are  included  in  the  enterprise,  wherein  we  see  an  attempt 
to  draw  the  ideal  down  into  the  actual. 

After  years  of  co-operation  between  them,  Thomas  Lake  Harris 
adopted  Nagasawa  as  his  son  ;  and  the  love  between  them  was  deep 
and  unspeakable.  He  finally  bestowed  upon  his  son  all  of  his  per- 
sonal property. 

Thirteen  years  before  he  passed  on  to  the  spiritual  world,  Thomas 
Lake  Harris  transferred  all  the  property  of  the  New  Life  into  the 
hands  of  Nagasawa  and  a  few  of  his  comrades  in  this  social 
endeavor ;  and  he  arranged  to  have  the  property  go  finally  to  the  last 
survivor.  Many  of  this  group  have  passed  on ;  and  by  a  recent 
arrangement,  Nagasawa  has  become  the  sole  proprietor  of  the 
Fountaingrove  estate. 


Biographies 


193 


JAPANESE  AMBASSADOR  BARON  K.  SHIDEHARA, 
Washington,  D.  C. 


194  Japanese  in  America 


JAPANESE  CONSUL  GENERAL  S.  YADA, 
San  Francisco,  Calif. 


Biographies 


195 


JAPANESE  CONSUL  UJIRO  OYAMA, 
Los  Angeles,  Calif. 


196 


Japanese  in  Amer 


'tea 


ZINTARO  YAMADA 

Los  Angeles,   California. 

Mr.    Yamada    was    bom    February   26,   1876,   in    the   prefecture    of 
Hiroshima,  Japan,  coming  to  the  United  States  in  1900. 

Most  Americans  associate  Japanese  in  America  with  truck  gar- 
dening. Mr.  Yamada  is  perhaps  the  best  example  of  the  type  of 
his  countrymen  who  engage  in  this  particular  line  of  activity,  as 
he  took  up  scientific  truck  gardening  almost  immediately  upon  his 
arrival   in   California. 

He  was  the  first  to  introduce  and  strive  for  a  modern  system  in 
truck  gardening  in  California.  His  work  has  been  rewarded,  and 
his  natural  leadership  of  men  utilized  by  his  accepting  the  office  of 
President  of  the  Japanese  Farmers'  Association.  He  has  served 
in  this  capacity  for  three  successive  terms. 


Biographies 


197 


KINTARO  SESSUE  HAYAKAWA 
Los  Angeles 

Born   in   Japan   1889.    Came   to.  America   1909.    Married  1914 

Mr.  Hayakawa  received  his  early  education  at  the  Nautical  Col- 
lege, Tokio,  Japan,  with  a  view  to  entering  government  service. 
The  attractions  of  the  New  World,  however,  induced  him  to  come 
to  America  in  1909,  when  he  entered  upon  a  course  of  study  in 
literature,  specializing  in  drama,  at  the  University  of  Chicago. 

Almost  without  exception  prominent  Japanese  in  America  have 
made  their  success  through  agricultural  or  commercial  pursuits. 
Mr.  Hayakawa,  however,  upon  finishing  his  studies  at  Chicago,  chose 
the  stage  for  his  career. 

Coming  to  Los  Angeles  in  1912,  his  first  efforts  were  confined  to 
the  so-called  "legitimate''  theater.  His  remarkable  qualifications 
for  the  silver  screen  soon  became  apparent,  however,  and  in  1913 
he  became  identified  with  the  moving  picture  industry  of  Los  An- 
geles. 

While  his  striking  success  on  the  screen  is  as  well  known  as  the 
motion  picture  itself,  Mr.  Hayakawa  declares  that  his  success  is  due 
in  no  small  measure  to  the  constant  aid  and  companionship  of  his 
wife,  who  is  also  prominent  in  moving  picture  circles. 


198 


Japanese  in  America 


SHIRO  NAKAHATA 
Los   Angeles,   California. 

Bom  August  5th,  in  the  city  of  Hirosaki,  Japan.     lie  received  his 
education  in  Tokyo  and  in  America,  coming  to  the  latter  in  July,  1905. 

His  first  home  in  America  was  in  San  Francisco,  where  he  became 
branch  manager  of  one  of  the  largest  Japanese  language  newspa- 
pers. After  serving  in  this  capacity  for  several  years,  he  became 
branch  manager  for  a  large  Japanese  firm  of  importers  and  export- 
ers. Hiis  one  desire  since  coming  to  America,  however,  has  been 
to  help  improve  the  general  condition  of  farming.  For  some  time 
he  was  in  personal  charge  of  a  5000-acre  ranch,  and  is  now  Secre- 
tary of  the  Japanese  Farmers'  Association  of  Southern  California, 
in  which  capacity  he  has,  since  1917,  conducted  a  strong  fight  for 
Americanized  methods  among  the  Japanese  farmers. 


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